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VOLUME 1 1

An Invitation to Physics 1

1 Introduction and Vectors 5

1.1 Standards of Length，Mass，and Time 5

1.2 Density and Atomic Mass 9

1.3 Dimensional Analysis 10

1.4 Conversion of Units 11

1.5 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations 12

1.6 Significant Figures 13

1.7 Coordinate Systems 15

1.8 Vectors and Scalars 16

1.9 Some Properties of Vectors 18

1.10 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors 20

1.11 Modeling， Alternative Representations，and Problem-Solving Strategy 25

Summary 30

Context 1 Mission to Mars 38

2 Motion in One Dimension 40

2.1 Average Velocity 41

2.2 Instantaneous Velocity 44

2.3 Analysis Models—The Particle Under Constant Velocity 49

2.4 Acceleration 51

2.5 Motion Diagrams 54

2.6 The Particle Under Constant Acceleration 56

2.7 Freely Falling Objects 60

2.8 Context Connection—Liftoff Acceleration 65

Summary 66

3 Motion in Two Dimensions 75

3.1 The Position， Velocity， and Acceleration Vectors 75

3.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration 78

3.3 Projectile Motion 80

3.4 The Particle in Uniform Circular Motion 87

3.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration 90

3.6 Relative Velocity 91

3.7 Context Connection—Circular Orbits 94

Summary 96

4 The Laws of Motion 106

4.1 The Concept of Force 106

4.2 Newton’s First Law 108

4.3 Inertial Mass 110

4.4 Newton’s Second Law—The Particle tnder a Net Force 111

4.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight 114

4.6 Newton’s Third Law 116

4.7 Applications of Newton’s Laws 119

4.8 Context Connection—Controlling the Spacecraft in Empty Space 127

Summary 129

5 More Applications of Newton’s Laws 139

5.1 Forces of Friction 139

5.2 Newton’s Second Law Applied to a Particle in Uniform Circular Motion 147

5.3 Nonuniform Circular Motion 154

5.4 Motion in the Presence of Velocity-Dependent Resistive Forces 156

5.5 Numerical Representations of Particle Dynamics 159

5.6 The Fundamental Forces of Nature 162

5.7 The Gravitational Field 165

5.8 Context Connection—The Effect of Gravity on Our Spacecraft 166

Summary 167

6 Energy and Energy Transfer 177

6.1 Systems and Environments 178

6.2 Work Done by a Constant Force 178

6.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors 182

6.4 Work Done by a Varyng Force 184

6.5 Kinetic Energy and the Work—Kinetic Energy Theorem 188

6.6 The Nonisolated System 191

6.7 Situations Involving Kinetic Fricton 196

6.8 Power 198

6.9 Context Connection —A Probe to the Sun 200

Summary 202

7 Potential Energy 210

7.1 Potential Energy of a System 210

7.2 The Isolated System 212

7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 217

7.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 223

7.5 The Nonisolated System in Steady State 224

7.6 Potential Energy for Gravitational and Electric Forces 226

7.7 Energy Diagrams and Stability of Equilibrium 229

7.8 Context Connection—Escape Speed from the Sun 231

Summary 232

8 Momentum and Collisions 243

8.1 Linear Momentum and Its Conservation 243

8.2 Impulse and Momentum 248

8.3 Collisions 251

8.4 Two-Dimensional Collisions 257

8.5 The Center of Mass 260

8.6 Motion of a System of Particles 264

8.7 Context Connection—Rocket Propulsion 267

Summary 269

9 Relativity 279

9.1 The Principle of Newtonian Relativity 280

9.2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 282

9.3 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity 283

9.4 Consequences of Special Relativity 284

9.5 The Lorentz Transformation Equations 293

9.6 Relativistic Momentum and the Relativistic Form of Newton’s Laws 296

9.7 Relativistic Energy 297

9.8 Mass and Energy 300

9.9 General Relativitv 301

9.10 Context Connection—From Mars to the Stars 304

Summary 305

10 Rotational Motion 312

10.1 Angular Speed and Angular Acceleration 313

10.2 Rotational Kinematics—The Rigid Body Under Constant Angular Acceleration 317

10.3 Relations Between Rotational andTranslational Quantities 319

10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy 321

10.5 Torque and the Vector Product 325

10.6 The Rigid Body in Equilibrium 329

10.7 The Rigid Body Under a Net Torque 332

10.8 Angular Momentum 337

10.9 Conservation of Angular Momentum 340

10.10 Precessional Motion of Gyroscopes 343

10.11 Rolling of Rigid Bodies 344

10.12 Context Connection—Gyroscopes in Space 347

Summary 349

11 Gravity， Planetary Orbits， and the Hydrogen Atom 363

11.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation Revisited 364

11.2 Structural Models 369

11.3 Kepler’s Laws 370

11.4 Energy Considerations in Planetary and Satellite Motion 375

11.5 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Theory of Hydrogen 381

11.6 Context Connertion—Changing from a Circular to an Elliptical Orbit 387

Summary 389

Context 1 Conclusion A Successful Mission Plan 397

Context 2 Earthquakes 402

12 Oscillatoty Motion 404

12.1 Motion of a Particle Attached to a Spring 405

12.2 Mathematical Representation of Simple Harmonic Motion 406

12.3 Energy Considerations in Simple Harmonic Motion 413

12.4 The Simple Pendulum 417

12.5 The Physical Pendulum 419

12.6 Damped Oscillations 421

12.7 Forced Oscillations 422

12.8 Context Connection—Resonance in Structures 423

Summary 425

13 Mechanical Waves 434

13.1 Propagation of a Disturbance 435

13.2 The Wave Model 439

13.3 The Traveling Wave 441

13.4 The Speed of Transverse Waves on Strings 445

13.5 Ref lection and Transmission of Waves 448

13.6 Rate of Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Strings 450

13.7 Sound Waves 452

13.8 The Doppler Effect 454

13.9 Context Connection—Seismic Waves 459

Summary 462

14 Superposition and Standing Waves 470

14.1 The Principle of Superposition 471

14.2 Interference of Waves 473

14.3 Standing Waves 476

14.4 Standing Waves in Strings 479

14.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns 483

14.6 Beats： Interference in Time 486

14.7 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns 488

14.8 Context Connection—Building on Antinodes 492

Summary 494

Context 2 Conclusion Minimizing the Risk 503

Context 3 Search for the Titanic 506

15 Fluid Mechanics 508

15.1 Pressure 509

15.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth 511

15.3 Pressure Measurements 515

15.4 Buoyant Forces and Arch imedes’s Pnnciple 516

15.5 Fluid Dynamics 521

15.6 Streamlines and the Continuity Equation for Fluids 522

15.7 Bernoulli’s Principle 524

15.8 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics 527

15.9 Context Connection—A Near Miss Even Before Leaving Southampton 528

Summary 530

Context 3 Conclusion Finding and Visiting the Titanic 541

VOLUME 2 546

Context 4 Global Warming 546

16 Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases 548

16.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodvnamics 549

16.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales 550

16.3 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 555

16.4 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas 562

16.5 The Kinetic Theory of Cases 564

16.6 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 570

16.7 Context Connection—The Atmospheric Lapse Rate 572

Summary 574

17 Energy in Thermal Processes：The First Law of Thermodynamics 582

17.1 Heat and Internal Energy 583

17.2 Specific Heat 585

17.3 Latent Heat and Phase Changes 588

17.4 Work in Thermodynamic Processes 592

17.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 595

17.6 Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics 597

17.7 Molar Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 601

17.8 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas 603

17.9 Molar Specific Heats and the Equipartition of Energy 605

17.10 Energy Transfer Mechanisms in Thermal Processes 608

17.11 Context Connection—Energy Balance for the Earth 614

Summary 616

18 Heat Engines，Entropy， and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 628

18.1 Heat Engines and，the Second Law of Thermodynamics 629

18.2 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 632

18.3 The Carnot Engine 632

18.4 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 635

18.5 An Alternative Statement of the Second Law 637

18.6 Entropy 638

18.7 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 643

18.8 Entropy Changes in Irreversiblc Proccsscs 646

18.9 Context Connection—The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine 648

Summary 650

Context 4 Conclusion Predicting the Correct Surface Temperature 659

Context 5 Lightning 664

19 Electric Forces and Electric Fields 666

19.1 Historical Oveniew 667

19.2 Properties of Electric Charges 667

19.3 Insulators and Conductors 669

19.4 Coulomb’s Law 671

19.5 Electric Fields 674

19.6 Electtic Field Lines 681

19.7 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field 683

19.8 Electric Flux 686

19.9 Gauss’s Law 689

19.10 Application of Gauss’s Law to Symmetric Charge Distributions 691

19.11 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium 695

19.12 Context Connection—The Atmospheric Electric Field 697

Summary 699

20 Electric Potential and Capacitance 709

20.1 Potential Difference and Electric Potential 710

20.2 Potential Differences in a Uniform Electric Field 712

20.3 Electric Potential and Electric Potential Energy Due to Point Charges 715

20.4 Obtaining Electric Field from Electric Potential 718

20.5 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions 720

20.6 Electric Potential of a Charged Conductor 723

20.7 Capacitance 725

20.8 Combinations of Capacitors 730

20.9 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 734

20.10 Capacitors with Dielectrics 737

20.11 Context Connection—The Atmosphere as a Capacitor 743

Summary 744

21 Current and Direct Current Circuits 756

21.1 Electric Current 757

21.2 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 760

21.3 Superconductors 766

21.4 A Structural Model for Electrical Conduction 768

21.5 Electric Energy and Power 771

21.6 Sources of emf 774

21.7 Resistors in Series and in Parallel 776

21.8 Kirchhoff’s Rules and Simple DC Circuits 782

21.9 RCCircuits 786

21.10 Context Connection—The Atmosphere as a Conductor 791

Summary 792

Context 5 Conclusion Modeling the Atmosphere to Determine the Number of Lightning Strikes 803

Context 6 Magnetic Levitation Vehicles 806

22 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic Fields 808

22.1 Historical Overview 809

22.2 The Magnetic Field 810

22.3 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field 815

22.4 Applications of the Motion of Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field 818

22.5 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor 821

22.6 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field 824

22.7 The Biot-Savart Law 826

22.8 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors 830

22.9 Ampere’s Law 831

22.10 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 835

22.11 Magnetism in Matter 836

22.12 Context Connection—The Attractive Model for Magnetic Levitation 838

Summary 840

23 Faraday’s Law and Inductance 852

23.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction 852

23.2 Motional emf 859

23.3 Lenz’s Law 863

23.4 Induced emfs and Electric Fields 867

23.5 Self-Inductance 869

23.6 RL Circuits 872

23.7 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 876

23.8 Context Connection—The Repulsive Model for Magnetic Levitation 879

Summary 881

Context 6 Conclusion Propelling and Braking the Vehicle 893

Context 7 Lasers 896

24 Electromagnetic Waves 898

24.1 Displacement Current and the Generalized Ampere’s Law 899

24.2 Maxwell’s Equations 900

24.3 Electromagnetic Waves 901

24.4 Hertz’s Discoveries 906

24.5 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 910

24.6 Momentum and Radiation Pressure 912

24.7 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 916

24.8 Polarization 919

24.9 Context Connection—The Special Properties of Laser Light 921

Summary 924

25 Reflection and Refraction of Light 932

25.1 The Nature of Light 933

25.2 The Ray Model in Geometric Optics 934

25.3 The Wave Under Reflection 935

25.4 The Wave Under Refraction 938

25.5 Dispersion and Prisms 944

25.6 Huygens’s Principle 947

25.7 Total Internal Reflection 949

25.8 Context Connection—Optical Fibers 952

Summary 956

26 Image Formation by Mirrors and Lenses 965

26.1 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors 966

26.2 Images Formed by Spherical Minors 969

26.3 Images Formed by Refraction 977

26.4 Thin Lenses 981

26.5 Lens Aberrations 990

26.6 Context Connection—Medical Fiberscopcs 991

Summary 993

27 Wave Optics 1002

27.1 Conditions for Interference 1003

27.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment 1003

27.8 Light Waves in Interference 1005

27.4 Change of Phase Due to Reflection 1009

27.5 Interference in Thin Films 1010

27.6 Diffraction Patterns 1014

27.7 Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures 1018

27.8 The Diffraction Grating 1022

27.9 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals 1026

27.10 Context Connection—Holography 1027

Summary 1029

Context 7 Conclusion Using Lasers to Store Information 1037

Context 8 The Cosmic Connection 1042

28 Quantum Physics 1044

28.1 Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Theory 1045

28.2 The Photoelectric Effect 1049

28.3 The Compton Effect 1054

28.4 Photons and Electromagnetic Waves 1058

28.5 The Wave Properties of Particles 1058

28.6 The Quantum Particle 1062

28.7 The Double-Slit Experiment Revisited 1066

28.8 The Uncertainty Principle 1068

28.9 An Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics 1071

28.10 A Particle in a Box 1073

28.11 The Quantum Particle Under Boundary Conditions 1076

28.12 The Schrodinger Equation 1077

28.13 Tunneling Through a Potengyal Energy Barrier 1080

28.14 Context Connection—The Cosmic Temperature 1083

Summary 1085

29 Atomic Physics 1093

29.1 Early Structural Models of the Atom 1094

29.2 The Hydrogen Atom Revisited 1096

29.3 The Spin Magnetic Quantum Number 1098

29.4 The Wave Functions for Hydrogen 1099

29.5 Physical Interpretation of the Quantum Numbers 1103

29.6 The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table 1110

29.7 Atomic Spectra： Visible and X-Ray 1115

29.8 Context Connection—Atoms in Space 1120

Summary 1122

30 Nuclear Physics 1129

30.1 Some Properties of Nuclei 1130

30.2 Binding Energy 1138

30.3 Radioactivity 1140

30.4 The Radioactive Decay Processes 1143

30.5 Nuclear Reactions 1151

30.6 Context Connection—The Engine of the Stars 1153

Summary 1155

31 Particle Physics 1164

31.1 The Fundamental Forces in Nature 1165

31.2 Positrons and Other Antiparticles 1166

31.3 Mesons and the Beginning of Particle Physics 1169

31.4 Classification of Particles 1172

31.5 Conservation Laws 1174

31.6 Strange Particles and Strangeness 1177

31.7 Making Elementary Particles and Measuring Their Properties 1178

31.8 Finding Patterns in the Particles 1182

31.9 Quarks 1183

31.10 Colored Quarks 1187

31.11 The Standard Model 1189

31.12 Context Connection—Investigating the Smallest System to Understand theLargest 1192

Summary 1197

Context 8 Conclusion Problems and Perspectives 1204