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Chapter One Puzzles in SLA 1

1.1 A Recent Acronym 1

1.2 SLA as a Field of Learning 3

1.3 Issues for Exploration 5

1.3.1 Description 6

1.3.2 Explanation 8

1.3.2.1 External Factors 8

1.3.2.2 Internal Factors 10

1.4 The Organization of This Book 12

1.5 The Use of This Book 15

Chapter Two The Influence of Behaviorism 17

2.1 The“Interference”of L1 17

2.1.1 Pronunciation 18

2.1.2 Syntax 21

2.1.3 Semantics and Pragmatics 22

2.2 The Behaviorist Understanding of SLA 24

2.2.1 “Rat Psychology” 24

2.2.2 The Audio-Lingual Method 26

2.3 Contrastive Analysis 28

2.3.1 Its Strong Form and Weak Form 28

2.3.2 Decline in Popularity 29

2.4 Criticism from Empirical Research 32

2.5 Conclusion 35

Chapter Three The“Chomskyan Revolution” 39

3.1 Introduction 39

3.2 Chomskyan Linguistics 39

3.2.1 Response to Behaviorism 39

3.2.2 ABC of Universal Grammar 40

3.2.3 The Innateness Hypothesis 42

3.2.4 The Hypothesis-Testing Hypothesis 44

3.2.5 A Simple Chronology 45

3.3 Criticisms of Chomskyan Linguistics 47

3.3.1 Piaget's Debate with Chomsky 47

3.3.2 The Criticisms That Never Go Away 48

3.4 Interlanguage Hypothesis 51

3.4.1 The Coining of the Word 51

3.4.2 Insights from FLA Research 53

3.5 Error Analysis 55

Chapter Four Natural Order and Comprehensible Input 61

4.1 Introduction 61

4.2 Natural Order Hypothesis 61

4.3 Morpheme Studies and Their Findings 63

4.3.1 Finding the Acquisition Sequence 63

4.3.2 Some Specific Findings 64

4.3.3 Pienemann's Study 66

4.4 Problems with Error Analysis and Morpheme Studies 72

4.5 Comprehensible Input Hypothesis 75

4.5.1 The“i＋1”Theory 75

4.5.2 Flaws in Krashen 78

Chapter Five Variability in Performance and Acquisition 82

5.1 Introduction 82

5.2 Variability in L1 Use 82

5.2.1 Labov vs. Chomsky 82

5.2.2 Social Dialects of New Yorkers 85

5.3 Variability in L2 Learner Language 87

5.3.1 Rod Ellis Study(1987) 88

5.3.2 Foster and Skehan Study(1996) 92

5.4 Role of Variability in SLA 94

5.5 Learner Variation 97

5.5.1 Age 98

5.5.2 Cognitive Style 101

5.5.3 Personality 104

5.5.4 Attitudes and Motivation 105

5.5.5 Aptitude 106

5.6 Research into the Origin of Aptitude: A Conclusion 108

Chapter Six Input and Interaction 114

6.1 Introduction 114

6.2 Terminology 114

6.3 Input and Interaction in L1 Acquisition 117

6.4 Input and Interaction in Natural Settings 120

6.4.1 Foreigner Talk 120

6.4.2 The FT Controversy 121

6.4.3 Ways of Meaning Negotiation 123

6.5 Input and Interaction in Classroom Settings 125

6.6 Effects of Input and Interaction on SLA 129

6.6.1 The Frequency Hypothesis 129

6.6.2 The Vertical Constructions 130

6.6.3 The Learning of Formulaic Sequences 132

6.6.4 The Interaction Hypothesis 133

6.7 Criticism of the Interaction Hypothesis 135

6.8 Swain's Output Hypothesis 139

6.9 Empirical Studies on the Role of Interaction 141

6.9.1 Studies by Rod Ellis et al.(1994,1995) 142

6.9.2 The Lyster and Ranta Study(1997) 144

Chapter Seven Learner Strategies 149

7.1 Introduction 149

7.2 Difficulty with Definition 149

7.3 Production Strategies 152

7.3.1 Planning and Monitoring 152

7.3.2 The Strategy of Using Formulaic Language 153

7.4 Communication Strategies 157

7.4.1 Achievement Strategies 159

7.4.2 Reduction Strategies 164

7.4.3 Some Comments 165

7.5 Learning Strategies 166

7.6 The Role of Memorization Strategies 171

Chapter Eight Noticing the Native Speaker Selection 176

8.1 Introduction 176

8.2 The Noticing Hypothesis 176

8.2.1 Background 176

8.2.2 Explaining the“Wes Phenomenon” 178

8.2.3 The Use of Compensatory Strategy 182

8.3 Effects of the Noticing Hypothesis 183

8.3.1 The Role of Instruction 183

8.3.2 Impact on Empirical Research 187

8.4 Noticing the Native Speaker Selection 189

8.5 A New Model of Language 194

Chapter Nine Developing L2 Literacy: Reading 202

9.1 Introduction 202

9.2 Mainstream Approaches to Literacy Development 203

9.2.1 Reading by Ear or by Eye 203

9.2.2 The Bottom-Up Model 205

9.2.3 The Top-Down Model 207

9.2.4 The Interactive Model 208

9.2.5 Influence on L2 Reading Instruction 209

9.3 Post-Modernist Approaches:Recent Development 213

9.3.1 Critical Literacy 213

9.3.2 Reader-Response Theory 216

9.4 Reading for Meaning vs.Reading for L2 Learning 218

Chapter Ten Developing L2 Literacy: Writing 222

10.1 Introduction 222

10.2 L2 Writing:Process and Product Approaches 222

10.3 L2 Writing as Compared to L1 Writing 226

10.4 The Bandwagon of Contrastive Rhetoric 228

10.4.1 Culture-Dependent“Thought Patterns” 228

10.4.2 Problems with the Research 230

10.4.3 Causes of L2 Rhetorical Problems 234

10.4.4 Attraction to Learners and Teachers 236

10.5 Developing L2 Literacy Skills 238

10.5.1 Inadequacy of the Pipeline Model 238

10.5.2 Writing as Reader 240

References 243

Index 249