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Chapter 1 Linguistics-A Pilot Science 1

1.1 Why Study Linguistics？ 1

1.2 What Is Language？-Defining the Object of Study 2

1.3 Origin of Language 3

1.4 Design Features of Language 5

1.4.1 Arbitrariness 5

1.4.2 Duality 10

1.4.3 Creativity 11

1.4.4 Displacement 12

1.5 Animal Communication Systems,Gesture and Other Language Forms 12

1.6 Perspectives of Language Studies 15

1.6.1 Language as Innate Human Knowledge 16

1.6.2 Language as a Fixed Code 17

1.6.3 Language as a System 17

1.6.4 Language as Interaction 19

1.7 Functions of Language 20

1.7.1 Theories of the Functions of Language 20

1.7.2 Referential Function 22

1.7.3 Interpersonal Function 23

1.7.4 Performative Function 24

1.7.5 Emotive Function 24

1.7.6 Phatic Communion 25

1.7.8 Metalingual Function 26

1.7.7 Recreational Function 26

1.8 Important Distinctions in Linguistics 27

1.8.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 27

1.8.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 30

1.8.3 Langue Parole 31

1.8.4 Competence and Performance 32

1.8.5 Actual and Potential Linguistic Choice 34

1.8.6 Etic vs. Emic 34

1.8.7 Formalism vs. Functionalism 36

1.9 Data of Linguistics 38

1.10 Status and Prospect of Linguistics 40

References 42

Chapter 2 Phonetics 45

2.1 The Study of Speech Sounds 45

2.1.1 Aspects of the Study of Speech Sounds 45

2.1.2 Speech Production and Perception 46

2.2 Speech Organs 47

2.3 Segments,Divergences,and Phonetic Transcription 51

2.3.1 Segments and Divergences 51

2.3.2 Phonetic Transcription and the IPA 52

2.3.3 Consonants and Vowels 55

2.4 Consonants 55

2.4.1 Manners of Articulation 56

2.4.2 Places of Articulation 59

2.4.3 The Consonants of English 61

2.5 Vowels 62

2.5.1 The Criteria of Vowel Description 62

2.5.2 The Theory of Cardinal Vowels 63

2.5.3 The Change of Vowel Quality 66

2.6 The Vowels of English 66

2.7 Coarticulation,Broad and Narrow Transcriptions 74

2.7.1 Coarticulation 74

2.7.2 Broad and Narrow Transcriptions 75

2.8 Syllables 76

2.8.1 The Syllable Structure 76

2.8.2 Sonority Scale 77

2.8.3 The Problems with the Sonority Scale 79

2.8.4 Syllabification and the Maximal Onset Principle 79

2.9 Stress 80

2.9.1 Stressed and Unstressed Syllables 80

2.9.2 Stress in English 80

2.9.3 Primary and Secondary Stresses 81

2.9.4 Sentence Stress 81

2.10 Pitch,Intonation,and Tone 82

2.10.1 Pitch 82

2.10.2 Intonation 83

2.10.3 Tone 86

References 87

2.10.4 Stress,Tone,and Pitch Accent Languages 87

3.1 Phonological Analysis 90

Chapter 3 Phonology 90

3.2 Phonemes and Allophones 91

3.2.1 Minimal Pairs 91

3.2.2 The Phoneme Theory 93

3.2.3 Allophones 94

3.3 Phonological Processes 97

3.3.1 Assimilation 97

3.3.2 Phonological Processes and Phonological Rules 98

3.3.3 Rule Ordering 100

3.4.1 The Theory of Distinctive Features 103

3.4 Distinctive Features 103

3.4.2 A List of Distinctive Features 105

3.5 Optimality Theory 109

3.6 Conclusion 113

References 114

Chapter 4 Morphology 116

4.1 Introduction 116

4.2 Morphemes,Morphs and Allomorphs 117

4.3 Classifying Morphemes 119

4.3.1 Free versus Bound Morphemes 120

4.3.2 Derivational versus Inflectional Morphemes 121

4.3.3 Lexical versus Grammatical Morphemes 122

4.4 Identifying Morphemes 123

4.5 Allomorphy 125

4.5.1 Phonological Conditioning 125

4.5.2 Morphological Conditioning 126

4.5.3 Stylistic Conditioning 128

4.6 Word,Word-form and Lexeme 128

4.7 Morphology and Word-formation 130

4.7.1 Root,Stem and Base 130

4.7.2 Affix 132

4.7.3 Hierarchical Structure of Words 133

4.7.4 Productivity 136

4.7.5 Word-formation Processes 137

4.8 Approaches and problems 141

4.8.1 Item and Arrangement 142

4.8.2 Item and Process 142

4.8.3 Word and Paradigm 143

4.8.4 Character-based Approach 143

References 145

Chapter 5 Generative Syntax 148

5.1 Generative Grammar：Some Basic Assumptions 148

5.1.1 Generative Grammar and Chomsky 148

5.1.2 E-language and I-language 149

5.1.3 Criteria of Adequacy 150

5.2 Phrase Structure Grammar 152

5.1.4 The Development of Generative Grammar：Three Theoretical Models 152

5.2.1 Rule-Generated Language：A Simple Example 153

5.2.2 Context Free Phrase Structure Rules 154

5.2.3 Transformation 157

5.2.4 Subcategorizaton 159

5.3 Projection from Lexicon 162

5.3.1 Some Conceptual Difficulties with Phrase Structural Rules 162

5.3.2 Projection Principle 164

5.3.3 The Extended Projection Principle 166

5.3.4 Adjunction 170

5.3.5 X-bar Schema 172

5.3.6 Extending X-bar Schema to Functional Categories 175

5.3.7 Theta-theory 182

5.3.8 Movement and Trace 187

5.3.9 Case Theory 191

5.3.10 Types of Syntactic Relations 193

5.4 The Minimalist Approach 203

5.4.1 Merge/Move 204

5.4.2 Minimizing to Bare Essentials 208

5.4.3 Checking and Checking Theory 210

5.4.4 VP Shells 219

References 225

6.1.1 Subject 228

6.1 Vilém Mathesius 228

Chapter 6 Functional Syntax 228

6.1.2 Predication 230

6.1.3 Object 234

6.1.4 Subject-predicate Relations 239

6.1.5 Object-predicate Relations 241

6.1.6 Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP) 242

6.2 Franti？ek Dane？ 244

6.2.1 A Three-level Approach to Syntax 244

6.2.2 Sentence Patterns and Predicate Classes 248

6.3 Michael Halliday 257

6.3.1 Processes 258

6.3.2 Participants 261

6.3.3 Circumstances 267

6.4 Summary 272

References 272

Chapter 7 Semantics 278

7.1 Introduction 278

7.2 Meanings of “Meaning” 279

7.3 The Referential Theory 281

7.4 Sense Relations 283

7.4.1 Synonymy 284

7.4.2 Antonymy 284

7.4.3 Hyponymy 289

7.5 Componential Analysis 291

7.6 Sentence Meaning 294

7.6.1 An Integrated Theory 295

7.6.2 Logical Semantics 300

7.6.3 Montague Semantics 307

Referemces 314

Chapter 8 Linguistic Comparison 316

8.1 Introduction 316

8.2 Comparative and Historical Linguistics 317

8.2.1 The Emergence of the Branch of Linguistics 317

8.2.2 The Stages of Development 317

8.3 Typological Comparison 338

8.3.1 Linguistic Typology and Linguistic Universals 339

8.3.2 Typological Classification 342

8.3.3 Implicational Universals 346

8.3.4 Functional Typological Classification 350

References 356

Chapter 9 Language,Culture,and Society 358

9.1 Introduction 358

9.2 Language and Culture 359

9.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Culture？ 360

9.2.2 What More Should We Know about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis？ 365

9.2.3 What Evidence Can We Give to Show the Close Relationship Between Language and Culture？ 370

9.2.4 To What Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study？ 371

9.3 Language and Society 372

9.3.1 How Does Language Relate to Society？ 374

9.3.2 What Do We Mean by a Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective？ 374

9.3.3 What More Should We Know about Sociolinguistics？ 377

9.3.4 What Implications Can We Get from Sociolinguistics？ 381

9.4 Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching 383

9.4.1 How Are Some Leading Sociolinguistic Theories Related to Language Teaching？ 384

9.4.2 Why Should We Teach Cultural Things in Our Classroom？ 390

9.4.3 What Should We Teach about Culture in Our Classroom？ 394

9.4.4 What Contributions Has Sociolinguistics Provided to the Field of Language Teaching？ 396

9.5 Summary 397

References 398

Chapter 10 Psycholinguistics 405

10.1 Introduction 405

10.2 Language Comprehension 407

10.2.1 Modularity 407

10.2.2 Speech Perception 409

10.2.3 Lexical Access 410

10.2.4 Sentence Processing 411

10.2.5 Discourse and Text Comprehension 416

10.2.6 The Underlying Elements of Reading 420

10.3 Language Production 427

10.3.1 From Concept to Expression 428

10.3.2 Implications from Error Data 430

10.4 Illustrated Experiment：A Comparative Study of Understanding English and Chinese Texts 432

10.4.1 Experimental Design 432

10.4.2 Hypothesis and Prediction 433

10.4.3 Methods 433

10.4.4 Discussions on Hypothesis 436

References 438

Chapter 11 Pragmatics 443

11.1 Introduction 443

11.2 Speech Act Theory 444

11.2.1 Performatives and Constatives 444

11.2.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 447

11.2.3 Classes of Illocutionary Acts 449

11.2.4 Searle s Revisions 451

11.3 The Classical Theory of Implicature 456

11.3.1 The Cooperative Principle 456

11.3.2 Violation of the Maxims 459

11.3.3 Characteristics of Implicature 462

11.4 Post-Gricean Developments 466

11.4.1 Relevance Theory 466

11.4.2 The Q-and R-principles 473

11.4.3 The Q-,I-and M-principles 479

References 487

12.1.1 Chinese Stylistics 489

12.1 Introduction 489

Chapter 12 Stylistics 489

12.1.2 Western Stylistics 490

12.1.3 Chinese Studies of Western Stylistics 490

12.2 Style and Stylistics 491

12.2.1 What Is Style？ 491

12.2.2 For Whom the Stylistician Works？Writer？Text？Reader？Context？Or Meaning？ 492

12.3 Style as Rhetoric：the Initial Stage of Stylistics 493

12.4 One Style or Several Styles？ 495

12.5 Aspects of Style：the Writer-Style as Writer s Individual/Personal Singularities 498

12.5.1 Buffon：Style Is the Man Himself 498

12.5.2 Spitzer：The Philological Circle and Its Methods 500

12.6.1 Jakobson s Projection Theory：Style as Structural Equivalence 502

12.6 Aspects of Style：the Text-Style as Linguistic Sameness(Structural Equivalence) 502

12.6.2 Ohmann s Structural Transformation Theory：Style as Transformation 504

12.7 Aspects of Style：the Text-Style as Linguistic Difference 507

12.7.1 Types of Deviation(Leech,1969) 507

12.7.2 The Significance of Deviation 511

12.8 Aspects of Style：the Reader-Style as Reader s Response 511

12.8.1 Stylistic Facts versus Linguistic Facts 512

12.8.2 Reader s Response 512

12.8.3 The Absence of the Reader 512

12.8.4 The Responses 513

12.8.5 The Superreader 513

12.9.1 Linguistics versus Stylistics 514

12.8.6 Comments on Riffaterre s Theory 514

12.9 Aspects of Style：the Context：Style as Function 514

12.9.2 Stylistic Factors and Differentiations 516

12.9.3 Main Features of the Basic Functional Styles of the Standard Language 518

12.9.4 Style as Foregrounding 519

12.10 Aspects of Style：the Meaning：Style as Meaning Potential 520

12.10.1 Linguistic Stylistics 520

12.10.2 Hallidayan Analysis 522

12.11 Concluding Remarks：Linguistics,Literary Criticism,and Stylistics 526

12.11.1 Linguistics and Stylistics 526

12.11.2 Linguistic Critic 526

12.11.3 Literary Criticism 527

12.11.4 Stylistics：an Area of Mediation 528

References 529

Chapter 13 Computational Linguistics 532

13.1 What is Computational Linguistics？ 532

13.2 Computer-assisted Language Learning(CALL) 533

13.2.1 Definition and Activities 533

13.2.2 Phases of CALL Development 534

13.2.3 Technology 538

13.3 Machine Translation 540

13.3.1 History of Development 540

13.3.2 Research Methods 543

13.3.3 Evaluation of MT and Translation Tools 545

13.3.4 MT and the Internet 546

13.3.5 Speech Translation 547

13.3.6 MT and Human Translation 547

13.4 Corpus Linguistics 550

13.4.1 Definition 550

13.4.2 Development,Categorization and Taxonomy 551

13.4.3 Constructing a Corpus 554

13.4.4 Concordances and Corpora 556

13.5 Information Retrieval 558

13.5.1 Scope Defined 558

13.5.2 An Information Retrieval System 559

13.5.3 Three Main Areas of Research 560

13.6 Internet 562

13.6.1 Email 563

13.6.2 News 564

13.6.3 Newsgroup and Chatroom 565

13.7 Looking into the Future 566

References 567

Chapter 14 Second Language Acquisition 572

14.1 Introduction 572

14.2 The Role of Internal Mechanisms 573

14.2.1 The UG Approach 573

14.2.2 UG and SLA 576

14.2.3 Connectionism and SLA 579

14.2.4 The Information Processing Approach to SLA 582

14.2.5 Skehen s Information Processing Framework 584

14.3 The Role of Native Language 587

14.4 Input,Interaction and Output 592

14.5 Non-language Influences 595

14.6 Summary 600

References 600

Chapter 15 Linguistics and Second Language Teaching 605

15.1 An Overview 607

15.2 Stage Ⅰ(1880-1940)：Implicit Influence 609

15.2.1 Francois Gouin s Initial Attempt 610

15.2.2 Henry Sweet s Linguistic Approach 612

15.2.3 Harold Palmer as Father of British Applied Linguistics 613

15.2.4 Summary 614

15.3 Stage Ⅱ(1940-1960)：Positive and Powerful 614

15.3.1 The Army Method in the Wartime 614

15.3.2 The Audiolingual Method 616

15.3.3 Contrastive Analysis 617

15.3.4 Summary 618

15.4 Stage Ⅲ(1960-1970)：Negative but Powerful 619

15.4.1 TG Grammar as a Liberating Force in L2 Teaching 619

15.4.2 The Cognitive Approach 621

15.4.3 Error Analysis 622

15.5 Stage Ⅳ(1970-1980)：Inconsistent 624

15.4.4 Summary 624

15.5.1 The Communicative Approach 625

15.5.2 The Natural Approach 628

15.5.3 Diversification in Teaching Methods 630

15.5.4 Summary 634

15.6 Stage Ⅴ(1980-2000)：Complex 634

15.6.1 Changes in the Field of Applied Linguistics 635

15.6.2 An Enlightened Eclectic approach Proposed by Douglas Brown 639

15.6.3 A Balanced Approach by Peter Skehan 646

15.6.4 Summary 656

References 657

16.1.1 Introduction 661

Chapter 16 Modern Theorles and Schools of Linguistics 661

16.1 The Beginning of Modern Linguistics 661

16.1.2 Sources of Saussure s Ideas 662

16.1.3 Saussure s Theorizing 666

16.1.4 Saussure s Legacy 670

16.1.5 Conclusion 671

16.2 The Prague School and the Copenhagen School 672

16.2.1 The Prague School 672

16.2.2 The Copenhagen School 681

16.3 The London School 683

16.3.1 Malinowski 684

16.3.2 Firth 686

16.3.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 692

16.3.4 Conclusion 707

16.4 American Structuralism 708

16.4.1 Early Period：Boas and Sapir 708

16.4.2 Bloomfield s Theory 712

16.4.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics 715

16.4.4 Conclusion 718

16.5 Transformational-Generative Grammar 719

16.5.1 The Innateness Hypothesis 721

16.5.2 What Is a Generative Grammar？ 724

16.5.3 The Classical Theory 725

16.5.4 The Standard Theory 731

16.5.5 The Extended Standard Theory 734

16.5.6 Later Theories 736

16.5.7 Conclusion 738

16.6 Other Theories：Revisionists or Rebels？ 740

16.6.1 Stratificational Grammar 740

16.6.2 Case Grammar 742

16.6.3 Generative Semantics 744

16.6.4 Relational Grammar 746

16.7 Concluding Remarks 749

References 750

Index 754