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1 The production of speech 1

1．1 Introduction 1

1．2 The lungs and the larynx 2

1．2．1 The vocal cords：the open and vibrating glottis 3

1．2．2 Devoicing and aspiration 4

1．2．3 Special types of phonation 4

1．2．4 Pitch 5

1．3 The vocal tract 6

1．2．5 The glottal stop 6

1．3．1 The pharynx 7

1．4 Vowels 8

1．3．3 The mouth 8

1．3．2 The nasal cavity 8

1．5 Constrictions 10

1．5．1 Places of articulation 10

1．5．2 Types of constriction 11

1．6 Segmental duration 13

Preface by Halliday 13

王宗炎序 14

1．7 Complex consonants 15

1．7．2 Double articulations 15

1．7．1 Secondary articulations 15

1．7．3 Manner-contour consonants 16

1．8 Nonpulmonic consonants 16

Preface by Chomsky 17

1．9 Stress 17

1．10 Conclusion 17

2 Some typology：sameness and difference 19

2．1 Introduction 19

2．2 Morphosyntactic structure 19

2．2．1 Morphological structure 19

2．2．2 Syntactic structure 20

2．3 A world without phonological structure 22

沈家煊序 24

2．3．1 One phonology for all languages? 24

2．3．2 Two kinds of structure 25

2．4 There s a difference 27

Prefacep 27

2．5 Universals and implicational relations 29

2．5．1 Plain or special? 31

2．5．2 Avoiding complexity 32

2．5．3 A word of caution 33

2．5．4 System gaps 33

2．6 The aims of phonology 35

2．7 Conclusion 36

3 Making the form fit 38

3．1 Introduction 38

3．2 Hawaiian 39

3．3．1 The process of nativization 40

3．3 Adjustment processes 40

3．3．2 Adjustments in the native vocabulary 44

导读 45

3．4 Two approaches 45

3．4．1 Rules 45

3．4．2 Constraints 46

3．5 Choosing between rules and constraints 50

3．5．1 Gradient violation and unranked constraints 52

3．6 Conclusion 53

4 Underlying and surface representations 54

4．1 Introduction 54

4．2 Allophonic variation 54

4．3 Two levels of representation 57

4．4 Neutralization 60

4．5 Choosing the underlying form 61

4．6 Conclusion 62

5 Distinctive features 64

5．1 Introduction 64

5．2 Motivating distinctive features 64

5．3 Feature values 66

5．4 A set of distinctive features 67

5．4．1 Major-class features 67

5．4．2 Laryngeal features 70

5．4．3 Manner features 71

5．4．4 Ambiguity and nonspecification 72

5．5 Place features 74

5．6 Some examples 77

5．7 Redundant vs．contrastive features 80

5．8 Conclusion 84

6 Ordered rules 86

6．1 Introduction 86

6．2 SPE representations 86

6．3 SPE rules 88

6．3．1 Reference to the syllable 89

6．3．2 The brace 89

6．3．3 Variable feature values 90

6．3．4 Parentheses 91

6．3．5 The transformational rule format 91

6．4 Linear order 92

6．5 Extrinsic and intrinsic ordering 95

6．6 Feeding，counterfeeding，bleeding，counterbleeding 97

6．6．1 Feeding order 98

6．6．2 Counterfeeding order 98

6．6．3 Bleeding order 99

6．6．4 Counterbleeding order 99

6．7 Conclusion 102

7 A case study：the diminutive suffix in Dutch 104

7．1 Introduction 104

7．2 General Dutch rules 104

7．2．1 Final devoicing 104

7．2．2 Palatalization 105

7．3 Standard Dutch 106

7．2．3 Degemination 106

7．4 The dialect of Sittard 109

7．5 Conclusion 114

8 Levels of representation 116

8．1 Introduction 116

8．2 Defining an intermediate level of representation 116

8．3 Lexical Phonology 119

8．3．1 Reference to morphological labels 120

8．3．2 Exceptions 120

8．3．3 Structure preservation 121

8．3．4 Native-speaker intuitions 122

8．3．5 Application across word boundaries 122

8．4 Phonological information in the lexicon 123

8．3．6 Lexical rules apply before postlexical rules 123

8．5 Controversial properties of lexical rules 126

8．6 Beyond the surface representation 128

8．6．1 Phonetic implementation 128

8．6．2 Models of implementation 129

8．6．3 Deciding between phonology and phonetic implementationp 131

8．7 Conclusion 133

9 Representing tone 135

9．1 Introduction 135

9．2 The inadequacy of a linear model 136

9．3 Word-based tone patterns 137

9．3．1 Language-specific associations 139

9．4 Stability 141

9．5 Postlexical tone 142

9．6 The Obligatory Contour Principle 142

9．6．1 Violating the OCP 144

9．7 Conclusion 147

10 Between the Segment and the Syllable 149

10．1 Introduction 149

10．2 A skeletal tier 150

10．3 Syllabification：the Maximum Onset Principle 151

10．3．1 The sonority profile 152

10．4 Arguments for the CV tier 153

10．4．1 The templatic use of the CV tier 153

10．4．2 Unfilled and unassociated slots 156

10．4．3 Compensatory lengthening 158

10．5 Moras 160

10．6 Syllable-based generalizations 165

10．7 Post-MOP syllabification rules 166

10．7．1 Ambisyllabicity in English 167

10．8 Conclusion 171

11 Feature geometry 172

11．1 Introduction 172

11．2 Two Properties of assimilations 172

11．3 Natural feature classes 174

11．4 Building a tree 175

11．4．1 The place node 175

11．4．2 The laryngeal node 176

11．4．3 The supralaryngeal node 178

11．5 Spreading and delinking 180

11．5．1 Writing rules 181

11．6 Implications of underspecification 183

11．6．1 Default rules 183

11．7 Conclusion 186

12 Exploiting the feature tree 187

12．1 Introduction 187

12．2 Long-distance assimilation 187

12．2．1 Vowel harmony 191

12．3 Complex segments 194

12．3．1 Evidence for complex segments 197

12．3．2 The representation of palatals and palatoalveolars 199

12．3．3 Distinguishing among palatoalveolars 202

12．4 Conclusion 204

13 Stress and feet 206

13．1 Introduction 206

13．2 The phonological nature of stress 206

13．2．1 Metrical feet and feet in poetry 207

13．3 Stress as an absolute property of segments：linear phonology 209

13．4 Stress as relative prominence：nonlinear phonology 212

13．4．1 A parametric theory of relative prominence 212

13．4．2 Four types of bounded stress system 214

13．5 Conclusion 220

14．1 Introduction 221

14．2 Iambic and trochaic rhythm 221

14 Further constraining stress 221

14．3 Foot-based rules 227

14．3．1 Quantitative adjustments 227

14．3．2 Foot-based segmental rules 228

14．4 Stress and morphology 231

14．5 Stress and Optimality Theory 233

14．5．1 Constraining stress 234

14．6 Conclusion 238

15 Phonology above the word 239

15．1 Introduction 239

15．2 The case for prosodic constituency 239

15．2．2 The intonational phrase 243

15．2．1 The phonological utterance 243

15．2．3 The phonological phrase 245

15．2．4 The phonological word 247

15．3 Deriving prosodic constituents 249

15．3．1 Clitics 250

15．3．2 The syntactic residue 252

15．4 Prosodic constituency below the phonological word 254

15．5 Conclusion 255

Epilogue 256

Key to questions 258

References 265

Language index 277

Subject index 283

文库索引 287