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Introduction 1

Reading and Writing Processes 1

Reading Process 1

Reading for Comprehension 2

Reading for Thinking 3

Reading for Usage Standards 4

Reading for Rhetorical Modes 5

Writing Process 7

Prewriting 7

Generating Ideas 7

Invention of Generating Ideas 8

Reading 8

Questions about Readers 9

Listing and Brainstorming 10

Mapping and Clustering 12

Journalist s Questions 13

Freewriting 14

Imitation 14

Outlining 15

Developing a Thesis Statement 18

Drafting 20

Paragraphs 20

Methods of Developing and Arranging Paragraphs and Essays 21

Introduction，Conclusion and Titles 22

Revising 23

Reading as a Reader 23

Applying a Checklist 24

Getting Feedback from Others 26

Editing 27

Proof Reading 28

Chapter 1 29

Narration: How to Tell a Story 29

1．Plan Your Narrative 30

2．Decide on Your Point of View 30

3．Make a Point 31

4．Include Only Significant Details 32

5．Pace Your Narrative 32

6．Use Consistent Verb Terrse 33

7．Use Dialogs 33

8．Use Transitions 34

A Student Essay 34

A Vacation with My Mother 34

Analysis 38

Ever Green（Janice Anderson） 40

“I Just Wanna Be Average”（Mike Rose） 47

The Saturday Evening Post（Russell Baker） 60

Chapter 2 74

Description: How to Explore through the Senses 74

1．Focus on a Dominant Impression 75

2．Use Images in Your Descriptions 76

3．Appeal to All the Reader s Senses 77

4．Use Strong Action Verbs 79

5．Use Specific Nouns 80

6．Use Comparisons and Figurative Expressions 81

A Student Essay 84

Growing up with Fluffy 84

Analysis 86

Grandma s House（A Student） 89

The Pines（John McPhee） 94

The Joy Luck Club（Amy Tan） 104

Chapter 3 115

Exemplification: How to Illustrate Ideas 115

1．Find Your Examples before You Begin Writing 117

2．Give Appropriate Examples Only 118

3．Use Different Kinds of Examples 118

4．Provide Transitions and Vary the Introduction to Your Examples 120

A Student Essay 121

Mom and Dad s Holiday Metamorphosis to Poppa and Granny 121

Analysis 124

Illusions in Nature（Henry Bastone） 126

Darkness at Noon（Harold Krents） 133

My Friend，Albert Einstein（Banesh Hoffmann） 139

Chapter 4 150

Explaining Process: How to Explain Step by Step 150

1．Begin with a Clear Statement of What You Are Explaining 151

2．Make Each Step of the Process Clear 153

3．Identify the Level of Knowledge and Needs of Your Reader 153

4．Use Specific Details and Vivid Descriptions 153

A Student Essay 154

Follow the Simple Directions 154

Analysis 156

Ditch Diving（Tom Bodett） 158

How to Hunt，Clean and Cook a Pheasant-（Robert F。Hanika） 163

How to Mark a Book（Mortimer Adler） 170

Chapter 5 181

Division and Classification: How to Find Categories 181

1．Choose a Single Principle for the Classification 182

2．Keep Your Categories Intact and Separate 183

3．Make the Classification Complete 184

4．Give Equal Space to Equal Entries 184

A Student Essay 185

People on the Slopes 185

Analysis 187

Four Types of Children（Christine Lavoie） 188

Cinematypes（Susan Allen Toth） 194

Kinds of Discipline（John Holt） 201

Chapter 6 210

Comparison and Contrast: How to Discover Similarities and Differences 210

1．Choose the Basis of Your Comparison/Contrast 210

2．Plan Your Comparison and Contrast Essay 212

3．Analogy 215

4．Use Words and Phrases That Clearly Draw a Comparison/Contrast 215

5．Deal Fairly and Equally with Both Sides 216

A Student Essay 216

Dormitory Chef 216

Analysis 218

The Confessions of a Househusband（Jim Sanderson） 219

That Lean and Hungry Look（Suzanne Britt Jordan） 225

Other Cultures，Other Times（Ann McGee-Cooper） 231

Chapter 7 Definition 239

How to Limit the Frame of Reference 239

A Student Essay 245

The Perfect Yuppie 245

Analysis 248

Why I Want a Wife（Judy Syfers） 249

Love: The Right Chemistry（Anastasia Toufexis） 254

The Taste of Evil（Mark Baker） 262

Chapter 8 Cause and Effect 267

How to Trace Reasons and Results 267

1．Purpose and Audience 268

2．How to Write Your Essay with Cause and Effect 268

3．Make a Specific Plan of Your Essay 269

4．Set Your Goal 271

5．Pitfalls 272

A Student Essay 273

Why Students Drop Out of College 273

Analysis 276

Why We Crave Horror Movies（Stephen King） 277

Responsible Choices（Coral Watercott） 283

Black Men and Public Space（Brent Staples） 290

Chapter 9 Argumentation 298

How to Incite People to Thought or Action 298

1．Goals of Persuasion 298

2．Persuasive Appeals 299

3．Supporting Your Argument 303

A Student Essay 308

More Testing，More Learning 308

Analysis 315

The Wretched of the Hearth（Barbara Ehrenreich） 317

A Hard Lesson in Smoking s Danger（Jean Warren） 323

Children Need To Play，Not Compete（Jessica Statsky） 328

Addendum 336

Writers on Writing 336

When You Write（Annie Dillard） 336

How to Write an Essay（Gilbert Highet） 338

How to Write with Style（Kurt Vaonnegut） 346

Revising（Donald Hall） 350

A Writer s Handbook 357

Revising Words 357

1．Eliminate redundancies． 357

2．Avoid unnecessary repetition of words． 357

3．Cut empty or inflated phrases． 358

4．Simplify the structure． 358

5．Reduce clauses to phrases，phrases to single words． 359

Revising Sentences 360

Coordination and Subordination 360

1．Combine choppy sentences． 361

2．Avoid ineffective coordination． 361

3．Do not subordinate major ideas． 362

4．Do not subordinate excessively． 362

Balance Parallel Ideas 363

1．Balance parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions． 363

2．Balance parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions． 364

3．Balance comparisons linked with than or as． 364

4．Repeat function words to clarify parallels． 365

Add Needed Words 365

1．Add words needed to complete compound structures． 365

2．Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete． 366

Untangle Mixed Constructions 366

1．Untangle the grammatical structure． 366

2．Straighten out the logical connections． 367

3．Avoid is．．．when，is．．．where，and reason is ．．．because constructions． 367

Repair Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 367

1．Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify． 368

2．Position phrases and clauses so that readers can see at aglance what they modify． 368

3．Repairing dangling modifiers． 368

Eliminate Distracting Shifts 369

1．Make the point of view consistent in person and number． 369

2．Maintain consistent verb tenses． 369

3．Make verbs consistent in mood and voice． 370

Provide Some Variety 371

1．Use a variety of sentence openings． 371

2．Use a variety of sentence structures． 371

3．Try inverting sentences occasionally． 371

Editing for Grammar 372

Repair Sentence Fragments 372

1．Attach fragmented subordinate clauses or turn them into sentences． 372

2．Attach fragmented phrases of turn them into sentences． 373

3．Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences． 373

Revise Comma Splices 374

1．Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction． 374

2．Use a semicolon（or，if appropriate，use a colon）． 374

3．Make the clauses into separate sentences． 375

4．Restructure the sentence，perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses． 375

Make Subjects and Verbs Agree 376

1．Make the verb agree with its subject，not with a word that comes between． 376

2．Treat most compound subjects connected by and as plural． 376

3．With compound subjects connected by or or nor，make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb． 377

4．Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular． 377

5．Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural． 378

6．Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb． 378

7．Make the verb agree with its subject，not with a subject complement． 379

8．Who，which，and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents． 379

Make Pronouns and Antecedents Agree 379

1．Do not use plural pronouns to refer to singular antecedents． 379

2．Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular． 380

Make Pronoun Reference Clear 380

1．Avoid ambiguous or remote pronoun reference． 380

2．Avoid the vague use of this，that，and which． 380

Choose Verbs with Care 381

1．Use the correct forms of irregular verbs． 381

2．Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay． 381

3．Use the present tense when writing about literature and when expressing general truths． 381

4．Use the past perfect tense for an action already completed by the time of another past action． 382

5．Use appropriate sequence of tenses with infinitives and participles． 382

6．Use subjunctive mood in if clauses expressing conditions contrary to fact and in that clauses following verbs such as ask，insist，recommend，request，suggest，and wish． 382

7．Prefer the active voice． 383

Bibliography 384