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Ⅰ．Language and Iinguistics 1

1．Language 1

1.1 What is language? 1

1.2 The key properties of human language 3

2．Linguistics 8

2.1 What is linguistics? 8

2.2 Distinctions between linguistics and traditional grammar 8

2.3 The scope of linguistics 11

2.4 Synchronic and diachronic linguistics 12

Ⅱ．Phonetics and phonology 14

1．Phonetics 14

1.1 The organs of speech 14

1.2 English speech sounds 18

1.2.1 English consonants 18

1.2.2 English vowels 22

1.3 Phonetic transcription 25

2．Phonology 26

2.1 Phonology 26

2.2 Phonetics and phonology 27

2.3 The phoneme 28

2.3.1 Phonemes and allophones 28

2.3.2 Minimal pair 29

2.3.3 Complementary distribution 30

2.3.4 Phonetic similarity 31

2.4 Distinctive features 31

2.5 Suprasegmental phonemes 33

2.5.1 Stress 34

2.5.2 Pitch 35

2.5.3 Juncture 36

2.5.4 Intonation 36

2.6 Assimilation and deletion 38

2.6.1 Assimilation 38

2.6.2 Deletion 39

2.7 Phonemes are meaningless 39

Ⅲ．Morphology 42

1．Morphology 42

2．The morpheme 43

2.1 Morphemes and allomorphs 43

2.2 Phonological and morphological conditioning of allomorphs 45

2.2.1 Phonological conditioning 45

2.2.2 Morphological conditioning 46

2.3 Morpheme types 47

2.3.1 Free and bound morphemes 47

2.3.2 Roots,stems and affixes 48

2.3.3 Inflectional and derivational affixes 49

3．Word types 50

4．Word classes 51

4.1 Open classes 52

4.2 Closed classes 52

Ⅳ．Syntax 54

1．Syntax 54

2．Phrase 55

2.1 Types of phrase 55

2.2 Structures of phrase 56

3．Clause and sentence 58

3.1 Types of clause 58

3.2 Simple and complex sentences 59

4．Expansion,conjoining and embedding 60

4.1 Expansion 60

4.2 Conjoning 60

4.3 Embedding 61

5．Syntactic analysis 61

6．Beyond the sentence 63

Ⅴ．Semantics 66

1．What is semantics? 66

2．Sense relations 67

2.1 Synonymy 67

2.2 Antonymy 69

2.3 Hyponymy 71

2.4 Polysemy and homonymy 72

2.5 Semantic fields 73

3．Componential analysis 75

4．Sentence meaning 77

4.1 Lexical and grammatical meaning 77

4.2 Sentence meaning 78

4.3 Selectional restrictions 80

4.4 Semantic relations between sentences 81

Ⅵ．Pragmatics 85

1．What is pragmatics? 85

2．Speech act theory 86

3．The Cooperative Principle 90

4．The Politeness Principle 92

Ⅶ．Language change 96

1．Sound change 97

2．Lexical change 98

2.1 Addition of new words 98

2.2 Loss of words 103

3．Morphological and syntactical change 103

3.1 Morphological change 103

3.2 Syntactical change 104

4．Semantic change 105

4.1 Broadening 105

4.2 Narrowing 106

4.3 Meaning shift 106

Ⅷ．De Saussure and modern linguistics 109

1．Ferdinand de Saussure 109

2．The arbitrariness of the linguistic sign 110

3．The relational nature of linguistic units 112

4．Langue and parole 113

5．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics 114

6．Syntagmatic and paradigmaticrelations 116

7．De Saussure's influence on modern linguistics 118

Ⅸ．American structuralism 120

1．Preliminary remarks 120

2．The influence of behaviourism 124

3．The constituent structure of sentences 126

3.1 The word 126

3.2 Immediate constituent analysis 128

3.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 130

3.4 Advantage of IC analysis 131

3.5 Problems with IC analysis 132

Ⅹ．Transformational-generative grammar 135

1．Chomsky and his theory 135

2．Competence and performance 137

3．Aspects of TG 138

3.1 Transformational aspect 138

3.2 Generative aspect 139

4．Deep and surface structures 140

5．Rules in TG 142

5.1 Phrase structure rules 142

5.2 Transformational rules 144

6．Components of a TG 147

6.1 The base 148

6.2 The phonological component 149

6.3 The semantic component 150

Ⅺ．Systemic-functional linguistics 153

1．Preliminary remarks 153

2．Scale and Category Grammar 155

2.1 Levels of language 155

2.2 Categories and scales 157

3．Systemic-functional grammar 163

3.1 The systemic orientation 163

3.2 Functional components 164

4．The linguistic system 170

Appendix Ⅰ 173

Appendix Ⅱ 176

Bibliography 189