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1 Introduction to Applied Linguistics 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Definition of Applied Linguistics 2

1.3 The Nature of Applied Linguistics 4

1.3.1 Applied Linguistics as an Interdisciplinary 4

1.3.2 Applied Linguistics of Empiricalness or Experimentativeness 12

1.3.3 Applied Linguistics as Practice-oriented or Question-driven 13

1.3.4 Short History of Applied Linguistics 13

1.4 Fields Overlapping with Applied Linguistics 16

1.4.1 Second Language Aquisition 16

1.4.2 Language Teaching Methodology 17

1.5 Main Topics of Applied Linguistics 17

Further Reading 21

Questions for Practice 23

2 Methodology of Applied Linguistics 24

2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 Methodological Considerations of Applied Linguistic Research 25

2.2.1 Attributes of Applied Linguistic Research 25

2.2.2 Categories of Applied Linguistic Research 26

2.2.3 Other Concerns of Applied Linguistic Research 27

2.2.4 Dimensions of Applied Linguistic Research 29

2.3 Methods of Applied Linguistic Research 31

2.3.1 Observation 31

2.3.2 Case Study 32

2.3.3 Questionnaire 32

2.3.4 Interview 33

2.3.5 Experiment 34

2.4 Statistic Processing of Data in Applied Linguistic Research 38

2.4.1 Descriptive Statistics 39

2.4.2 Inferential Statistics 39

2.4.3 SPSS 42

Further Reading 43

Questions for Practice 45

3 Linguistics for Applied Linguistics 46

3.1 Introduction 46

3.2 Linguistic Description of Language 47

3.2.1 Phonetics and Phonology 47

3.2.2 Morphology 48

3.2.3 Syntax 48

3.2.4 Semantics 49

3.3 Views of Language 51

3.3.1 The Structural View 51

3.3.2 The Communicative View 51

3.3.3 The Interactional View 51

3.4 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 52

Further Reading 55

Questions for Practice 56

4 Language Transfer and Interlanguage 57

4.1 Introduction 57

4.2 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 58

4.3 The Differences Between L1 and L2 59

4.3.1 Phonological Differences 59

4.3.2 Morphological Differences 59

4.3.3 Syntactic Differences 60

4.4 Interlanguage and Language Transfer 61

4.4.1 Interlanguage 61

4.4.2 Negative Transfer 63

4.4.3 Positive Transfer 64

4.5 Pedagogical Implications for Language Teaching 66

4.5.1 Understand Negative Language Transfer with Corpus Approach 67

4.5.2 Audiolingual Repetition with Contrasting Stimuli 67

4.5.3 Contrastive Analysis with Cognitive Method 68

Further Reading 71

Questions for Practice 72

5 Sociolinguistic Dimensions of Applied Linguistics 73

5.1 Introduction 73

5.2 Language and Society 73

5.3 Social Contexts to Language Teaching 74

5.4 Communicative Competence 76

5.5 Pedagogical Implications 85

5.5.1 Communicative Language Teaching and Fluency 85

5.5.2 Communicative Language Teaching and Focus on Forms 87

Further Reading 88

Questions for Practice 88

6 Culture Studies and Intercultural Communication 90

6.1 Introduction 90

6.2 Culture 90

6.3 Cross-cultural/Intercultural Communication 91

6.4 Language,Thought and Culture 95

6.4.1 The Sapir-whorf Hypothesis 96

6.4.2 Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory 97

6.5 Culture and Language in Use 98

6.6 Pedagogical Implications for Applied Linguistics 100

6.6.1 Stereotyping and Prejudice 103

6.6.2 Dynamics of Culture 104

Further Reading 105

Questions for Practice 106

7 Psycholinguistics and Multilingual Processing 108

7.1 Introduction 108

7.2 Psycholinguistic Approach to Applied Linguistics 109

7.3 Cognitive Mechanisms in Language Learning 113

7.3.1 Attention 114

7.3.2 Memory 115

7.4 The Multilingual Processing 116

7.4.1 The Structure of the Bilingual Lexicon 116

7.4.2 Language Choice in Production and Perception 116

7.4.3 The Language Mode 117

7.5 Pedagogical Implications 118

7.5.1 Cognitive Processes and SLA 118

7.5.2 Socio-psychological Factors in Language Processing 120

Further Reading 121

Questions for Practice 123

8 Corpus Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 124

8.1 Introduction 124

8.2 Types of Corpora 125

8.3 Research in Corpus Linguistics 127

8.3.1 Use of a Corpus 127

8.3.2 Use of Computer-assisted Analysis Techniques 128

8.3.3 Empirical Analysis of Patterns in Language Use 128

8.3.4 Use of Quantitative and Qualitative/Interpretive Techniques 129

8.4 Approaches in Corpus-based Research 129

8.4.1 Investigating Characteristics Associated with the Use of a Language Feature 129

8.4.2 Examining the Realizations of a Particular Function of Language 130

8.4.3 Characterizing a Variety of Language 131

8.4.4 Mapping the Occurrence of Language Feature Through a Text 131

Further Reading 132

Questions for Practice 133

9 Second Language Acquisition and Applied Linguistics 135

9.1 Introduction 135

9.2 The Issues of SLA 135

9.2.1 The language Acquisition Process 136

9.2.2 Activity Theory 138

9.3 The Mainstream View of SLA 138

9.4 SLA Contributions to Applied Linguistics 139

Further Reading 149

Questions for Practice 150

10 Conversation Analysis in Language Teaching 151

10.1 Introduction 151

10.2 The Organization of Conversation 152

10.2.1 Turn-taking 154

10.2.2 Repair 155

10.2.3 Word Selection 156

10.3 Conversation in Contexts 158

10.4 Conversation Analysis Research Interesting to Applied Linguists 160

10.4.1 Native,Non-native and Multilingual Talk 160

10.4.2 Talk in Educational Institutions 162

10.4.3 Grammar and Interaction 163

10.5 Pedagogical Implications 163

Further Reading 165

Questions for Practice 166

11 Discourse Analysis and Language Teaching 168

11.1 Introduction 168

11.2 Discourse Analysis 169

11.2.1 Linguistic Discourse Analysis 171

11.2.2 Sociolinguistic and Discourse Analysis 172

11.2.3 Descriptive Linguistic Discourse Analysis 174

11.2.4 Functional Linguistic Discourse Analysis 175

11.2.5 Systemic Discourse Analysis 176

11.3 Discourse Analysis Interesting to Applied Linguists 179

11.3.1 Literary Criticism and Semiotics 180

11.3.2 Stylistics 180

11.3.3 Linguistics and Rhetoric 181

11.3.4 Rhetorical Studies 182

11.3.5 Writing and Composition Studies 183

11.4 Pedagogical Implications 183

Further Reading 189

Questions for Practice 190

12 Syllabus Design for Language Teaching 192

12.1 Introduction 192

12.2 Types of Syllabuses 192

12.3 Procedures for Syllabus Design 193

12.4 Roles of a Syllabus 195

12.5 Principles for Organizing a Syllabus 196

Further Reading 199

Questions for Practice 201

13 Learner Factors and Individual Differences in Language Learning 202

13.1 Introduction 202

13.2 The Age for Learning a Foreign Language 203

13.3 Language Aptitude 206

13.4 Cognitive Style 210

13.5 Language Learning Strategies 212

13.6 Attitudes and Motivation 216

13.7 Personality 221

13.8 Pedagogical Implications 227

Further Reading 230

Questions for Practice 231

14 Testing and Assessment 232

14.1 Introduction 232

14.2 Categories of Tests 233

14.2.1 Proficiency Test 233

14.2.2 Placement Test 235

14.2.3 Achievement Test 236

14.2.4 Diagnostic Test 237

14.3 Design and Construct Tests 238

14.3.1 Norm-referenced Versus Criterion-referenced Tests 238

14.3.2 Adopting Language Tests 245

14.3.3 Developing Language Tests 248

14.3.4 Adapting Language Tests 249

14.4 Test Result Application 249

14.5 Pedagogical Implications 251

Further Reading 255

Questions for Practice 256

References 257