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Introduction 1

1 Linguistics and English linguistics 1

2 Structure of the book 2

Part Ⅰ Language System 3

Overview 3

Chapter One What Is Language? 5

1.1 The nature of language 5

1.1.1 Defining language 5

1.1.2 The design features of language 6

1.2 Distinctions between important concept pairs in linguistic study 10

1.2.1 Synchronic and diachronic 10

1.2.2 Langue and parole 11

1.2.3 Competence and performance 11

1.2.4 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic 11

Summary 12

Suggestions for study 13

Questions and exercises 13

Mini-research project 14

Chapter Two Phonetics 15

2.1 Speech organs 15

2.2 Consonants and vowels 16

2.2.1 The International Phonetic Alphabet 16

2.2.2 Describing the English consonants 17

2.2.3 Describing the English vowels 23

Summary 25

Suggestions for study 26

Questions and exercises 26

Mini-research project 28

Chapter Three Phonology 29

3.1 Important concepts in phonology 29

3.1.1 Phonemes 29

3.1.2 Minimal pairs and sets 30

3.1.3 Phonemes,phones and allophones 30

3.2 Identifying phonemes 32

3.2.1 Environment and distribution 32

3.2.2 Three types of distribution 33

3.3 Sequences of phonemes 35

3.4 Co-articulation effects 36

3.4.1 Assimilation 36

3.4.2 Elision 37

3.5 Supra-segmental features 37

3.5.1 Stress 37

3.5.2 Tone and intonation 38

3.5.3 Juncture 39

Summary 40

Suggestions for study 41

Questions and exercises 41

Mini-research project 43

Chapter Four Morphology 44

4.1 What is morphology? 44

4.2 Morphemes 45

4.3 Classifications of morphemes 46

4.3.1 Roots and affixes 46

4.3.2 Free morphemes and bound morphemes 47

4.3.3 Prefixes,suffixes and infixes 48

4.3.4 Inflectional and derivational affixes 48

4.3.5 Root,base,and stem 50

4.4 Morphemes,morphs and allomorphs 51

4.5 Empty morph and zero morph 52

4.6 Morphemic analysis 54

4.7 The role of morphology in English 57

4.7.1 Grammatical functions of inflectional morphology 57

4.7.2 Derivational morphology and word-formation processes 57

Summary 62

Suggestions for study 63

Questions and exercises 64

Mini-research project 66

Chapter Five Syntax 67

5.1 Structural description of sentences 67

5.1.1 Syntactic relations 67

5.1.1.1 Sequential(syntagmatic)relations 67

5.1.1.2 Substitutional(paradigmatic)relations 68

5.1.1.3 Hierarchical relations 69

5.1.2 Labeled IC analysis and the hierarchical structuring of English sentences 71

5.2 Generation of sentences 74

5.2.1 Surface structure and deep structure 74

5.2.2 A general description of phrase structure rules(PS rules) 77

5.2.2.1 Noun phrases and adjective phrases 78

5.2.2.2 Verb phrases and auxiliary phrases 78

5.2.3 Transformational rules 82

5.2.3.1 T-Affix 83

5.2.3.2 Passivization 84

Summary 86

Suggestions for study 87

Questions and exercises 88

Mini-research project 90

Chapter Six Semantics 91

6.1 What is meaning? 91

6.2 Lexical semantics 93

6.2.1 Componential analysis 93

6.2.1.1 What is componential analysis? 93

6.2.1.2 General and specific semantic features 94

6.2.1.3 Redundant semantic features 94

6.2.1.4 Semantic classes 95

6.2.2 Semantic field 95

6.2.2.1 What is a semantic field? 95

6.2.2.2 Sense relationships 96

6.2.3 Lexical ambiguity 100

6.2.3.1 Polysemy 100

6.2.3.2 Homonymy 100

6.2.4 Collocations in English 101

6.3 Sentence semantics 102

6.3.1 What is essential for determining sentence meaning? 103

6.3.2 Semantic roles 104

6.3.3 Grammatical functions and semantic roles 106

6.3.4 Semantic anomaly 107

Summary 108

Suggestions for study 109

Questions and exercises 110

Mini-research project 114

Part Ⅱ Language Use 115

Overview 115

Chapter Seven General Principles of Communication 117

7.1 The Cooperative Principle 117

7.1.1 The four maxims of the Cooperative Principle 118

7.1.2 Violation of the maxims and conversational implicature 120

7.2 The Politeness Principle 123

7.3 The Principle of Relevance 125

7.3.1 The basic principle 125

7.3.2 Contextual effects and processing effort 126

7.3.3 Optimal relevance 127

Summary 128

Suggestions for study 129

Questions and exercises 130

Mini-research project 131

Chapter Eight Intercultural Communication 132

8.1 Important concepts 132

8.1.1 What is culture? 132

8.1.2 What is communication? 134

8.1.3 What is intercultural communication? 134

8.2 Language and culture 135

8.2.1 The impact of language on culture 136

8.2.2 The impact of culture on language 137

8.2.2.1 Impact at the lexical level 137

8.2.2.2 Impact at the discourse level 137

8.3 Diverse intercultural communication patterns 138

8.3.1 Low-context and high-context communication 138

8.3.2 Direct and indirect verbal communication 140

8.3.3 Person-oriented and status-oriented verbal communication 141

8.3.4 Self-enhancement and self-effacement communication 141

8.4 Potential problems in intercultural communication 142

8.4.1 Seeking similarities 142

8.4.2 Stereotyping 143

8.4.3 Prejudice 144

8.4.4 Ethnocentrism 144

8.4.5 Culture shock 145

Summary 146

Suggestions for study 147

Questions and exercises 148

Mini-research project 150

Chapter Nine Language Variety 151

9.1 Language—dialect—regional dialect—social dialect 152

9.1.1 Language and dialect 152

9.1.2 Regional dialects 152

9.1.3 Social dialects 153

9.2 Lingua franca—pidgin—creole 154

9.2.1 Lingua franca 154

9.2.2 Pidgin 154

9.2.3 Creole 155

9.3 Style—genre—taboo—euphemism 155

9.3.1 Style 155

9.3.2 Genre 157

9.3.3 Taboo 158

9.3.4 Euphemism 159

9.4 Gender and language use 160

Summary 161

Suggestions for study 162

Questions and exercises 162

Mini-research project 163

Part Ⅲ Language Learning 165

Overview 165

Chapter Ten Major Issues in SLA 167

10.1 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 167

10.2 Error Analvsis 168

10.3 The Interlanguage Hypothesis 170

10.4 The Monitor Model 171

10.5 The Output Hypothesis 173

10.6 The Open-Choice Principle and the Idiom Principle 174

Summary 176

Suggestions for study 177

Questions and exercises 177

Mini-research project 178

Chapter Eleven Factors Affecting Second Language Learning 179

11.1 Factors not easily modified by learners 179

11.1.1 Anxiety 179

11.1.2 Inhibition and risk-taking 180

11.1.3 Extroversion/Introversion 181

11.2 Factors easily modified by learners 183

11.2.1 Motivation and attitudes 183

11.2.2 Self-esteem 184

11.2.3 Learner strategies 185

11.2.3.1 Language learning strategies 185

11.2.3.2 Language use strategies 186

11.2.3.3 Differences between effective and inefiective learners 188

Summary 197

Suggestions for study 198

Questions and exercises 198

Mini-research project 199

Chapter Twelve Developing an Intercultural Communicative Competence 200

12.1 A brief review of current models of second language competence 200

12.2 Why are current models inadequate? 201

12.3 A model of intercultural communicative competence 204

12.4 Intercultural competence in communicative language use 205

Summary 207

Suggestions for study 208

Questions and exercises 208

Mini-research project 209

References 210