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Introduction and basic concepts 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Overview of the study of word-formation 1

1.3 Basic concepts 3

1.3.1 Word-form,lexeme 3

1.3.2 Morpheme,morph,allomorph 4

1.3.3 Free and bound morphemes 6

1.3.4 Root,stem,base 7

1.3.5 The relationship between lexemes and morphemes 8

1.3.6 Productivity 8

1.3.7 Transparency and opacity 9

1.3.8 Compounding 10

1.3.9 Complex and simplex 10

1.3.10 Endoeentric,exocentric,appositional and Dvanda 10

1.4 Summary 11

Further reading 11

Exercises 11

Word structure 13

2.1 Morphological processes 13

2.2 Types of allomorphy 15

2.2.1 Phonologically conditioned allomorphy 15

2.2.2 Morphologically conditioned allomorphy 16

2.2.3 Lexically conditioned allomorphy 16

2.2.4 Distinguishing types of allomorphy 17

2.2.5 Phonological constraints on allomorph selection 20

2.3 Affixation 21

2.3.1 Level ordering 21

2.3.2 Latinate vocabulary and root affixation 22

2.3.3 Stem allomorphy and morphological segmentation 24

2.4 Lexical and morphological relatedness 25

2.5 Establishing word-formation rules 26

2.6 Summary 34

Further reading 35

Exercises 35

Lexicalization and institutionalization 37

3.1 Lexicalization 37

3.1.1 Lexicalization in a diachronic sense 37

3.1.2 Lexicalization in a synchronic sense:listing/listedness 40

3.1.3 The lexicon and theories of word-formation 40

3.2 Institutionalization 42

3.2. 1 Terminology 42

3.2.2 Ideal and real speakers and the speech community 43

3.2. 3 De-institutionalization:the end of a word's life 45

3.3 Definition 46

3.4 Types of lexicalization 47

3.4. 1 Lipka's three types of lexicalization 47

3.4. 2 Bauer's five types of lexicalization 48

3.5 Problems with lexicalization and institutionalization 56

3.5.1 Nonce-formations and neologisms 56

3.5.2 (Non-)Lexicalizability 58

3.5.3 What is in the(mental)lexicon and how does it get there? 60

3.5.4 Unpredictable and playful formations,analogy,fads,and new developments 61

3.5.5 Lexicalization beyond words 62

3.6 Summary 63

Further reading 64

Exercises 64

4 Productivity and constraints on productivity 66

4.1 Productivity and synonyms 66

4.2 Productivity as a cline 69

4.3 Productivity as synchronic 73

4.4 Prerequisites for productivity 74

4.5 Potential and productivity in the individual 75

4.6 Measuring productivity 78

4.7 Constraints on productivity 85

4.7.1 Blocking 85

4.7.2 Structural constraints 88

4.7.3 Pragmatic constraints 90

4.7.4 Aesthetic constraints 90

4. 8 Summary 91

Further reading 91

Exercises 92

Phonological issues in word-formation 94

5.1 Compounds and stress 94

5.1.1 The assumption of consistency in stress-patterning 94

5.1.2 Why stress is not criterial for compounds 95

5.1.3 The generative approach 99

5.2 Derivatives and stress 100

5.2.1 A first approximation 100

5.2.2 Distinguishing a suffix 102

5.2.3 General stress rules 104

5.2.4 Prefixes 104

5.3 Segmental variation in word-formation 106

5.3.1 Morphophonemic alternants 106

5.3.2 Role of phonological variation 108

5.3.3 Generative phonology 109

5.3.4 Critique of generative phonology 110

5.4 Summary 116

Further reading 116

Exercises 116

Syntactic and semantic issues in word-formation 118

6.1 Syntax 118

6.1.1 Case grammar 118

6.1.2 X syntax 120

6.1.3 Generative Semantics 121

6. 2 On the"sentential source"analysis in word-formation 122

6. 3 The Modality component 123

6.3.1 Negation 123

6.3.2 Tense 125

6.3.3 Mood 126

6.3.4 Aspect 127

6.4 The underlying verb in compounds 127

6. 5 Semantics and word-formation 130

6.5.1 The specification of meanings in word-formation 132

6.5.2 Lexical entries 137

6.6 Summary 143

Further reading 143

Exercises 143

Word-formation processes 145

7.1 Affixation 145

7.1.1 Suffixes 145

7.1.2 Prefixes 154

7.2 Conversion 157

7.2.1 The directionality of conversion 158

7.2.2 Conversion or zero-affixation? 161

7.2.3 Conversion:syntactic or morphological? 163

7.3 Compounding 164

7.3.1 Nominal compounds 165

7.3.2 Adjectival compounds 171

7.3.3 Verbal compounds 172

7.3.4 Neoclassical compounds 173

7.4 Some other processes of word-formation 176

7.4.1 Truncations:truncated names,-y diminutives,and clippings 176

7.4.2 Blends 178

7.4.3 Abbreviations and acronyms 179

7.5 Summary 182

Further reading 182

Exercises 182

8 The nature of word-formation rules 185

8.1 The problem:word-based versus morpheme-based morphology 185

8.2 Morpheme-based morphology:syntagmatic approach 186

8.3 Word-based morphology:paradigmatic approach 189

8.4 Synthesis 193

8.5 Lexical strata 194

8.5.1 Lexical strata determined by affixes or roots? 197

8.5.2 Affixes uniquely belong to one stratum? 198

8.5.3 How many strata needed? 199

8.5.4 Phonological rules restricted to one stratum? 200

8.5.5 Morphological rules restricted to one stratum? 201

8.6 Summary 204

Further reading 205

Exercises 205

9 Word-formation in optimality theory 206

9. 1 The basics 206

9.1.1 Notation 207

9.1.2 The interaction of constraints 208

9.2 Morphology in optimality theory 209

9.3 Stratal optimality theory 211

9.4 Competition in morphology 213

9.4.1 Competition between different morphemes 213

9.4.2 Competition between components 216

9.4.3 Competition between different morpheme orders 220

9.5 Summary 225

Further reading 226

Exercises 226

10 Word meaning and context 227

10.1 Word meaning 227

10.2 Types of meaning 228

10.3 Semantic field and componential analysis 229

10.4 Types and the role of contex 232

10.4.1 Linguistic context 233

10.4.2 The role of context 234

10.5 The nature of word meaning 237

10.5.1 Procedure for determining distinct senses 238

10.5.2 Core and non-core aspects of word meaning 239

10.5.3 Modelling semantic representations 241

10.6 Summary 242

Further reading 242

Exercises 242

11 Meaning relations 244

11.1 Polysemy 244

11.2 Homonymy 245

11.2.1 Types of homonyms 245

11.2.2 Origins of homonyms 246

11.2.3 Differentiation of homonyms from polysemants 247

11.3 Synonymy 247

11.3.1 Absolute synonymy 247

11.3.2 Propositional synonymy 248

11.3.3 Near-synonymy 249

11.3.4 Sources of synonyms 250

11.4 Antonymy 251

11.4.1 Types of antonymy 251

11.4. 2 Some characteristics of antonyms 254

11.4.3 The use of antonyms 255

11.5 Hyponymy and meronymy 255

11.5.1 Hyponymy—a kind of relation 256

11.5.2 Meronymy—the part-whole relation 258

11. 6 Summary 261

Further reading 261

Exercises 261

12 Words in the mind 263

12.1 The mental lexicon 263

12.2 Categorization and psychology 265

12.3 The structuring of the universe 267

12.4 Models of lexical processing 268

12.4.1 The logogen model 269

12.4.2 The cohort model 270

12.4.3 The search model of lexical access 271

12.4.4 Levelt's'blueprint for the speaker' 272

12.4.5 The modularity hypothesis 273

12.4.6 Connectionism 275

12.5 Summary 277

Further reading 277

Exercises 278

13 Relationship between lexicology and lexicography 279

13.1 Defining terms 279

13.2 Lexicology 279

13.3 Lexicography 282

13.4 Summary 284

Further reading 284

Exercises 284

References 286