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Chapter 1 General Introduction 1

1.1 Background Knowledge of Language Teaching and Learning 2

1.1.1 Views of language 2

1.1.2 Views of teaching 3

1.1.3 Views of learning 4

1.2 Context of Language Teaching and Learning 6

1.2.1 Educational context 6

1.2.2 Socio-cultural context 7

1.2.3 Language context 8

1.3 A Brief History of ELT Methodology 9

1.3.1 The traditional approaches 9

1.3.2 The structural approaches 12

1.3.3 Communicative language teaching 16

1.4 Summary 20

1.5 Self-assessment 20

Chapter 2 Understanding Foreign Language Learning 23

2.1 Second Language Acquisition Theories 24

2.1.1 Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition 24

2.1.2 Acculturation Theory 26

2.1.3 Accommodation Theory 28

2.1.4 Discourse Theory 29

2.1.5 Interlanguage Theory 29

2.1.6 Chomsky's Universal Grammar 31

2.2 Learner Factors 33

2.2.1 Age 33

2.2.2 Aptitude 34

2.2.3 Learning styles 35

2.2.4 Personality 36

2.2.5 Attitude 38

2.2.6 Motivation 39

2.3 Learning Strategies 40

2.3.1 Cognitive strategies 40

2.3.2 Metacognitive strategies 41

2.3.3 Social and affective strategies 42

2.4 Good Language Learners 43

2.5 Summary 44

2.6 Self-assessment 45

Chapter 3 Principles of Language Teaching and Learning 46

3.1 Curriculum Design 47

3.1.1 Curriculum and syllabus 47

3.1.2 Curriculum 48

3.1.3 Syllabus 48

3.2 Different Syllabuses 49

3.2.1 Analytic and synthetic syllabus 50

3.2.2 Type A and Type B syllabus 50

3.2.3 Structural syllabus 52

3.2.4 Functional syllabus 54

3.3 Principles of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning 57

3.3.1 Shift from product to process 57

3.3.2 Shift from teacher-centeredness to learner-centeredness 59

3.3.3 Shift from explanation to exploration 60

3.3.4 Shift from sentence to discourse 61

3.4 Aims and Objectives of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning 62

3.4.1 Aims 63

3.4.2 Objectives 63

3.4.3 Guidelines 64

3.5 Summary 65

3.6 Self-assessment 65

Chapter 4 Teaching and Learning Language Knowledge 67

4.1 Introduction 68

4.1.1 Form,meaning,and function 68

4.1.2 Relationships 69

4.1.3 Implications for language teaching and learning 72

4.2 Teaching and Learning Phonological Items 73

4.2.1 Fundamental issues 73

4.2.2 Basic concepts 74

4.2.3 Presenting phonological items 77

4.2.4 Practicing phonological items 78

4.2.5 Two sample activities 81

4.3 Teaching and Learning Lexical Items 82

4.3.1 Principles for presenting and practicing lexical items 82

4.3.2 Showing meanings of a lexical item 82

4.3.3 Activating known vocabulary 83

4.3.4 Expanding vocabulary 87

4.4 Teaching and Learning Structural Items 91

4.4.1 Showing meaning of a new structure 91

4.4.2 Presenting the form of a new structure 93

4.4.3 Presenting functions of a new structure 94

4.4.4 Practicing structures 95

4.5 Summary 102

4.6 Self-assessment 102

Chapter 5 Developing Language Skills 104

5.1 Principles for Developing Receptive Skills 105

5.1.1 Guidelines 105

5.1.2 Sub-skills 106

5.1.3 Materials 108

5.2 Developing Listening Skill 110

5.2.1 Major difficulties in listening 110

5.2.2 Preparation for listening 112

5.2.3 Listening strategies 115

5.2.4 Listening activities 117

5.3 Developing Reading Skill 120

5.3.1 Reasons for reading 121

5.3.2 Reading strategies 122

5.3.3 Procedures for teaching a reading class 123

5.3.4 Reading activities 125

5.4 Principles for Developing Productive Skills 128

5.4.1 Nature of communication 128

5.4.2 Guidelines 129

5.4.3 Differences between oral and written communication 130

5.5 Developing Speaking Skill 132

5.5.1 Preparation for oral communication 132

5.5.2 Speaking activities 136

5.6 Developing Writing Skill 138

5.6.1 Basic issues 138

5.6.2 Controlled writing,guided writing,and free writing 140

5.6.3 Procedures for teaching free writing 144

5.6.4 Creating good assignments for students 146

5.7 Integrating Skills 147

5.7.1 Reasons for integration 147

5.7.2 Examples of integration 148

5.8 Summary 148

5.9 Self-assessment 149

Chapter 6 Interaction in the Classroom 152

6.1 Organizing the Class 152

6.1.1 Characteristics of good class organization 153

6.1.2 The teacher as an organizer 154

6.1.3 Class management techniques 158

6.2 Designing Classroom Activities 162

6.2.1 Types of activities 162

6.2.2 Pair work and group work 162

6.2.3 A balanced activity approach 164

6.3 Using Classroom English 168

6.3.1 Situations for natural English use 168

6.3.2 Functions of teacher talk(TT) 170

6.3.3 Reducing teacher talking time(TTT) 170

6.3.4 Place of first language(L1) 171

6.4 Teaching Large Classes 172

6.4.1 Challenges 172

6.4.2 Strategies 173

6.5 Summary 176

6.6 Self-assessment 176

Chapter 7 Promoting Learner Autonomy 178

7.1 Task-Based Learning(TBL) 178

7.1.1 Definition 179

7.1.2 Features 180

7.1.3 Designing tasks 183

7.1.4 Selecting and grading tasks for TBL lessons:A sample 187

7.2 Using the Internet 191

7.2.1 Reasons for using the Internet in EFL 191

7.2.2 Typical activities using the Internet 193

7.2.3 Organizing an EFL class using the Internet 198

7.3 Individualization 200

7.4 Summary 204

7.5 Self-assessment 204

Chapter 8 Enhancing Teaching Performance 206

8.1 Lesson Planning 207

8.1.1 Elements of a lesson plan 207

8.1.2 Guidelines for lesson planning 210

8.1.3 Unit planning 211

8.1.4 Writing a lesson plan 212

8.1.5 Knowledge before lesson planning 214

8.2 Class Observation 217

8.2.1 What to observe 217

8.2.2 How to observe 222

8.2.3 A sample schedule of class observation 225

8.2.4 Samples of class observation 227

8.3 Summary 230

8.4 Self-assessment 230

Chapter 9 Evaluating and Improving Learning Outcomes 232

9.1 Assessment and Evaluation 233

9.1.1 Characteristics of good assessment 233

9.1.2 General principles 234

9.2 Formative Assessment 235

9.2.1 Definition 235

9.2.2 Functions 235

9.2.3 Guidelines 236

9.2.4 Techniques 237

9.2.5 Formative or summative assessment 241

9.3 Error Analysis 241

9.3.1 Errors and mistakes 241

9.3.2 Classification of errors 242

9.4 Error Correction 243

9.4.1 Why correct 243

9.4.2 When to correct 244

9.4.3 How to correct 245

9.4.4 Implications for classroom practice 249

9.5 Summary 251

9.6 Self-assessment 252

Chapter 10 Developing Professional Expertise 253

10.1 A Reflective Approach to Language Teaching 254

10.1.1 Definition 254

10.1.2 The reflective teaching process 254

10.1.3 Reflective teaching tools 256

10.2 Action Research 261

10.2.1 Definition 261

10.2.2 AR and reflective teaching 262

10.2.3 Procedures 263

10.2.4 Collaborative action research 267

10.2.5 An action research sample 268

10.3 Research Methods 270

10.3.1 Defining research 270

10.3.2 A paradigm for L2 research 271

10.3.3 Research methods 274

10.3.4 Research design 274

10.3.5 Data analysis 281

10.3.6 Research tools 282

10.4 Summary 283

10.5 Self-assessment 283

Bibliography 286