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Chapter 1 The Structure of the English Sentence 1

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Morphemes 3

1.1.1 Roots 4

1.1.2 Affixes 4

1.2 Words 8

1.2.1 Word classes 8

1.2.2 Word classes in relation to meaning 10

1.2.3 Word-formation 11

1.3 Phrases 13

1.3.1 The noun phrase 13

1.3.2 The verb phrase 14

1.3.3 The adjective phrase 14

1.3.4 The adverb phrase 14

1.3.5 The prepositional phrase 15

1.4 Clauses 15

1.4.1 Subject and predicate 15

1.4.2 Clause patterns 16

1.4.3 Functions 17

1.5 Sentences 18

1.5.1 Simple,compound and complex sentences 18

1.5.2 Statements,questions,commands and exclamations 19

1.6 Text 20

1.7 Exercises 22

Chapter 2 Sentence Types 24

2.0 Introduction 24

2.1 Statements 25

2.1.1 Assertion vs.non-assertion 26

2.1.2 Negation 28

2.1.3 Other functions of statements 34

2.2 Questions 35

2.2.1 YES-NO questions 35

2.2.2 WH-questions 35

2.2.3 Alternative questions 36

2.2.4 Tag questions 37

2.3 Commands 38

2.4 Exclamations 40

2.4.1 WHAT-exclamations 40

2.4.2 HOW-exclamations 41

2.5 Exercises 42

Chapter 3 Noun and Noun Phrase（1）:Noun and Number 44

3.0 Introduction 44

3.1 Noun classes 44

3.2 Number 46

3.2.1 Singular invariables 46

3.2.2 Plural invariables 48

3.2.3 Irregular plurals 49

3.3 Unit nouns 53

3.4 Exercises 56

Chapter 4 Noun and Noun Phrase（2）:Determiner and Genitive 58

4.0 Introduction 58

4.1 Determiners 58

4.1.1 Functions of determiners 58

4.1.2 Co-occurrence of determiners 59

4.1.3 Usage of some determiners 64

4.1.4 Articles 71

4.2 Genitives 92

4.2.1 Forms of genitive 92

4.2.2 The genitive vs.theof-phrase 93

4.2.3 Group genitive 99

4.2.4 Local genitive 100

4.2.5 Double genitive 102

4.3 Exercises 103

Chapter 5 Verb and Verb Phrase（1）:Tense,Aspect and Future 105

5.0 Introduction 105

5.0.1 Classification of verbs 105

5.0.2 System of two tenses and two aspects 112

5.1 Tense 113

5.1.1 Simple present 113

5.1.2 Simple past 120

5.2 Aspect 125

5.2.1 Present progressive 125

5.2.2 Past progressive 129

5.2.3 Present perfect and present perfect progressive 132

5.2.4 Past perfect and past perfect progressive 139

5.3 Future 143

5.3.1 Will/shall＋infinitive 143

5.3.2 Be going to＋infinitive 146

5.3.3 Present progressive 147

5.3.4 Simple present 148

5.3.5 Other constructions expressing future time 149

5.4 Exercises 152

Chapter 6 Verb and Verb Phrase（2）:Passive Voice and Subjunctive Mood 154

6.0 Introduction 154

6.1 Passive voice 154

6.1.1 Be-passive,get-passive and pseudo-passive 155

6.1.2 Voice constraints 157

6.1.3 By-phrase 163

6.1.4 Passive voice of multi-word verbs 164

6.1.5 Passive voice of non-finite verbs 170

6.2 Subiunctive mood 171

6.2.1 Be-subjunctive 172

6.2.2 Were-subjunctive 175

6.3 Exercises 176

Chapter 7 Verb and Verb Phrase（3）:Modal Auxiliaries 178

7.0 Introduction 178

7.1 Can and may 183

7.1.1 Can and could 183

7.1.2 May and might 190

7.1.3 Can vs.may 195

7.2 Will and shall 199

7.2.1 Will/would（'ll/'d） 199

7.2.2 Shall/should 203

7.3 Should and ought to 206

7.3.1 Should 206

7.3.2 Ought to 207

7.3.3 Should vs.ought to 208

7.4 Must,need,have（got）to 211

7.4.1 Must 211

7.4.2 Need 213

7.4.3 Have（got）to 214

7.5 Dare 217

7.6 Exercises 218

Chapter 8 Verb and Verb Phrase（4）:Non-finite Verbs 220

8.0 Introduction 220

8.1 Infinitive 221

8.1.1 Bare infinitive 223

8.1.2 To-infinitive 232

8.1.3 Other uses of infinitive 238

8.2 -ing participle 248

8.2.1 Object to verb 250

8.2.2 Logical subject 253

8.2.3 Infinitive or-ing participle 254

8.3 -ed participle 259

8.3.1 -ed participle as a premodifier 261

8.3.2 -ed participle as a complement 264

8.4 Dangling participle 265

8.5 Exercises 267

Chapter 9 Adjective Phrase and Comparison 269

9.0 Introduction 269

9.1 Syntactic features of adjectives 272

9.1.1 Structure of the adjective phrase 273

9.1.2 Attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives 276

9.2 Semantic classification of adjectives 282

9.2.1 Stative adjectives vs.dynamic adjectives 282

9.2.2 Gradable adjectives vs.non-gradable adjectives 284

9.2.3 Inherent adjectives vs.non-inherent adjectives 286

9.2.4 Restrictive adjectives vs.non-restrictive adjectives 287

9.2.5 Marked adjectives vs.unmarked adjectives 287

9.3 Ordering of pre-modifying adjectives 288

9.4 Comparison 291

9.4.1 Forms of comparison 291

9.4.2 Usage notes 297

9.4.3 Comparative construction 300

9.4.4 Ellipsis in comparative sentences 305

9.4.5 Other expressions of comparison 306

9.5 Exercises 308

Chapter 10 Preposition and Prepositional Phrase 310

10.0 Introduction 310

10.1 Forms of prepositions 311

10.1.1 Simple prepositions 311

10.1.2 Complex prepositions 311

10.2 Meanings of prepositions 314

10.2.1 Prepositions relating to place 315

10.2.2 Prepositions relating to time 323

10.2.3 Prepositions denoting other relations 329

10.3 Collocations of prepositions with verbs,adjectives and nouns 331

10.3.1 Subject matter:about,on 331

10.3.2 Material,ingredient:with,of,out of;substance:from 332

10.3.3 Standard:for,at 333

10.3.4 Reaction:at,to 334

10.4 Exercises 335

Chapter 11 The coordination and Subordination 337

11.0 Introduction 337

11.1 Coordination 339

11.1.1 Coordinators 339

11.1.2 Punctuation between coordinated units 344

11.2 Subordination 347

11.2.1 Subordinators 348

11.2.2 Subordinate clauses 349

11.3 Exercises 353

Chapter 12 Relative Clause 355

12.0 Introduction 355

12.1 Restrictiveness and non-restrictiveness 355

12.2 Antecedent 356

12.2.1 Nominal antecedent 357

12.2.2 Non-nominal antecedent 362

12.3 Choice of relative pronouns 364

12.3.1 Relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses 364

12.3.2 Relative pronouns in on-restrictive relative clauses 368

12.3.3 Relative adverb 369

12.4 Double relative clause 371

12.5 Exercises 373

Chapter 13 Adverbials 375

13.0 Introduction 375

13.1 Adjuncts 377

13.1.1 Time adjuncts 377

13.1.2 Place adjuncts 386

13.1.3 Process adjuncts 389

13.1.4 Contingency adjuncts 392

13.1.5 Other adjuncts 401

13.2 Disjuncts 402

13.3 Conjuncts 408

13.3.1 Enumeration-conjuncts 409

13.3.2 Addition-conjuncts 410

13.3.3 Transition-conjuncts 411

13.3.4 Summation-conjuncts 412

13.3.5 Explanation-conjuncts 412

13.3.6 Contrast-conjuncts 413

13.3.7 Result-conjuncts 413

13.3.8 Inference-conjuncts 414

13.3.9 Concession-conjuncts 414

13.4 Exercises 415

Chapter 14 Concord 419

14.0 Introduction 419

14.1 Principles of concord 420

14.2 Subject-verb concord 424

14.2.1 Collective nouns as subject 424

14.2.2 Coordinated noun phrases as subject 427

14.2.3 Expressions of quantity as subject 432

14.2.4 Nominal clauses as subject 435

14.2.5 Concord in the existential sentence 436

14.2.6 Concord in the relative sentence 437

14.3 Pronoun concord 438

14.4 Exercises 440

Chapter 15 Information Structure and Emphasis 442

15.0 Introduction 442

15.1 Information structure 443

15.1.1 Given and new information 444

15.1.2 Information focus 446

15.2 Postponement 449

15.2.1 Passive voice 450

15.2.2 Extraposition 452

15.2.3 Discontinuity 454

15.2.4 Other types of postponement 456

15.3 Fronting 457

15.4 Inversion 459

15.4.1 Partial inversion 460

15.4.2 Complete inversion 462

15.5 Cleaving 463

15.5.1 Cleft sentence 463

15.5.2 Pseudo-cleft sentence 465

15.6 Existential sentence 466

15.6.1 Information structure of existential sentence 466

15.6.2 Grammatical features of existential sentence 467

15.7 Exercises 469

Chapter 16 Cohesion 472

16.0 Introduction 472

16.1 Reference 474

16.1.1 Reference by pronouns 475

16.1.2 Reference by demonstratives 478

16.1.3 Reference by comparison 481

16.2 Substitution 483

16.2.1 Nominal Substitution by one 484

16.2.2 Verbal substitution by do 485

16.2.3 Clausal substitution by so or not 486

16.3 Ellipsis 486

16.3.1 Nominal ellipsis 487

16.3.2 Verbal ellipsis 487

16.3.3 Clausal ellipsis 488

16.4 Other cohesive devices 489

16.4.1 Transition 489

16.4.2 Repetition 491

16.4.3 Parallelism 492

16.5 Exercises 493

Key to the Exercises 495

Glossary 505

Bibliography 514