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Ⅰ．Introduction 1

1．Linguistics 1

1.1 What is linguistics? 1

1.2 Linguistics vs.traditional grammar 1

1.3 The scope of linguistics 3

2．Language 6

2.1 What is language? 6

2.2 The defining properties of human languages 6

Ⅱ．Phonology 11

1．The phonic medium of language 11

2．Phonetics 11

2.1 What is phonetics? 11

2.2 The speech organs 12

2.3 Orthographic represention of speech sounds—narrow and broad trans？iptions 13

2.4 Somo major articulatory ？ariahles 14

2.5 Classification of English speech sounds 15

3．Phonology 18

3.1 Phonetics and phonology 18

3.2 Phone,phoneme and allphone 19

3.3 Phonemic contrast,comp？ distribution and minimal pair 20

3.4 Sequences of phonemes 21

3.5 Some rules of phonology 22

3.6 Suprasegmental features—stress,tone,intonation 23

Ⅲ．Morphology 27

1．Morphology 27

1.1 Open classes and closed classes 27

1.2 Internal structure of Words and rules for word for-mation 28

2．Morphemes—the minimal uhits of meaning 29

3．Derivational and inflectional morphemes 30

4．Morphological rules of word formation 32

5．Compunds 33

Ⅳ．Syntax 37

1．Syntax 37

1.1 What is syntax? 37

1.2 Sentence 37

2．Stuctralist approach 37

2.1 Form classes 38

2.2 Constituent structure 40

2.3 Immediate consti？nent analysis 40

2.4 Endooentric and exocentric consructions 42

2.5 Advantage of IC analysis 43

2.6 Labelled tree diagram 44

2.7 Discontinuous constituents 45

3．Transformational-generative grammar 46

3.1 Competence and performance 46

3.2 C？iteria for judging grammars 47

3.3 Generative aspect 48

3.4 Transformational aspect 48

3.5 Deep and surface structures 49

4．The Standard Theory 51

4.1 Components of a TG 51

4.2 The base 52

4.3 Transformations 55

4.4 The form of T-rules 57

4.5 The phonological component 58

4.6 The semantic component 59

Ⅴ．Semantics 62

1．Semantics 62

1.1 What is semantics? 62

2．Some views on semantics 62

2.1 Naming things 63

2.2 Concepts 63

2.3 Context and behaviourism 64

2.4 Mentalism 65

3．Lexical structure 67

3.1 Sense and reference 67

3.2 Synonymy 69

3.3 Polysemy and homonymy 71

3.4 Hyponymy 72

3.5 Antonymy 73

3.6 Relational opposites 74

4．Componential analysis 74

4.1 Components of meaning 74

4.2 Meaning relations 76

5．Sentence meaning 78

5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence? 78

5.2 Selectional restrictions 79

5.3 Basic statements about meaning 81

6．The semantic structure of sentences 82

6.1 Extended use of componential analysis 82

6.2 Predication analysis 84

6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predications 86

6.4 Advantages of predication analysis 88

7．Context and meaning 91

7.1 Malinowski's view 91

7.2 Firth's view 92

7.3 Utterance meaning 93

Ⅵ．Language change 97

1．Introduction 97

2．Sound change 97

3．Morphological and syntactic change 98

3.1 Change in"agreement"rule 98

3.2 Change in negation rule 98

3.3 Process of simplification 99

3.4 Change in inflections 99

4．Vocabulary change 100

4.1 The addition of new words 100

4.2 The loss of words 103

4.3 Change in the meanings of words 104

5．Some recent trends 105

5.1 Moving towards greater informality 105

5.2 The influence of American English 106

5.3 The influence of science and technology 106

Ⅶ．Some topics in sociolinguistics 110

1．The scope of sociolinguistics 110

1.1 Sociolinguistics vs.traditional linguistic studies 110

1.2 Indications of relatedness between language and society 111

1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics 112

2．The sociology of language 113

2.1 The definition of a language 113

2.2 Functional language types 114

2.3 Social differentiation and language 117

2.4 Bilingualism and diglossia—two specific socio-linguistic situations 121

3．Sociolinguistics proper 124

3.1 Speech event 124

3.2 Speech functions 125

3.3 Communicative competence 128

3.4 Language variation 129

Ⅷ．Language acquisition 136

1．Introduction 136

1.1 Language acquisition 136

1.2 The beginning of language 136

1.3 Stages in first language acquisition 136

1.4 Age and native language acquisition 137

1.5 Common order in the development of language 138

1.6 Different rate of language development 138

2．Phonological development 139

2.1 Regular sound development 139

2.2 Mother and father words 139

2.3 Grammatical development 140

2.4 Vocabulary development 141

2.5 Sociolinguistic development 142

Ⅸ．Error analysis and second language acquisition 146

1．Diffrences and similarities between first and second language acquisition 146

2．The inadequacy of imitation theory 147

3．Interference 148

3.1 Phonological evidence 148

3.2 Lexical evidence 149

3.3 Grammatical evidence 149

4．Cross-association 150

5．Overgeneralization 151

6．Strategies of communication 152

7．Performance errors 153

Appendix 156

Ⅰ Bibliography 156

Ⅱ．A Glossary In English And Chinese 160