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Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 What is language? 1

1.2 Design features of language 2

1.2.1 Arbitrariness 2

1.2.2 Duality 3

1.2.3 Productivity 3

1.2.4 Displacement 4

1.2.5 Cultural transmission 4

1.3 Functions of language 4

1.3.1 Phatic function 5

1.3.2 Directive function 5

1.3.3 Informative function 5

1.3.4 Interrogative function 5

1.3.5 Expressive function 6

1.3.6 Evocative function 6

1.3.7 Performative function 6

1.4 What is linguistics? 6

1.5 Main branches(scope)of linguistics 7

1.5.1 Phonetics 7

1.5.2 Phonology 7

1.5.3 Morphology 7

1.5.4 Syntax 7

1.5.5 Semantics 7

1.5.6 Pragmatics 7

1.6 Macrolinguistics 8

1.6.1 Sociolinguistics 8

1.6.2 Psycholinguistics 8

1.6.3 Second language acquisition 8

1.6.4 Linguistics and foreign language teaching 8

1.7 Some important distinctions in linguistics 8

1.7.1 Descriptive vs.prescriptive 8

1.7.2 Synchronic vs.diachronic 9

1.7.3 Langue and parole 9

1.7.4 Competence and performance 9

Exercises 10

Chapter 2 Phonetics ＆ Phonology 13

2.1 Phonetics 13

2.1.1 What is phonetics? 13

2.1.2 Speech organs 14

2.1.3 The International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA) 15

2.1.4 Classification of English speech sounds 16

2.2 Phonology 19

2.2.1 Phonology ＆ phonetics 19

2.2.2 Phone,phoneme and allophone 20

2.2.3 Distinctive features 20

2.2.4 Minimal pairs and sets 21

2.2.5 Complementary distribution 21

2.2.6 Some rules in phonology 22

2.2.7 Supersegmental features 23

Exercises 25

Chapter 3 Morphology 29

3.1 Classification of word 29

3.1.1 Open-class words vs.closed-class words 29

3.1.2 Variable vs.invariable words 29

3.1.3 Grammatical words vs.lexical words 29

3.2 Morphology 29

3.2.1 Morpheme 30

3.2.2 Morphs and allomorph 33

3.3 Morphological rules 33

3.4 Word formation 34

3.4.1 Compounding 34

3.4.2 Derivation 36

3.4.3 Conversion 36

3.4.4 Blending 37

3.4.5 Clipping(Shortening or abbreviation) 37

3.4.6 Acronym 37

3.4.7 Back-formation 38

3.4.8 Borrowing 38

3.4.9 Coinage 39

Exercises 39

Chapter 4 Syntax 42

4.1 The traditional approach 42

4.1.1 Categories 42

4.1.2 Concord and government 44

4.1.3 Sentence and types of sentence 45

4.2 The structural approach 46

4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 47

4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis) 48

4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 51

4.3 The generative approach 52

4.3.1 Phrase categories and their structures 52

4.3.2 Phrase structural rules 53

4.3.3 Sentence rule 56

4.3.4 Transformational rules(T-rules) 58

4.4 The functional approach 67

4.4.1 Functional sentence perspective 67

4.4.2 Systemic-functional grammar 68

Exercises 69

Chapter 5 Semantics 72

5.1 What is semantics? 72

5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning 72

5.2.1 The naming theory 72

5.2.2 The conceptualist view 73

5.2.3 Contextualism 73

5.2.4 Behaviorism 74

5.3 Lexical meaning 74

5.3.1 Sense ＆ reference 74

5.3.2 Types of meaning 75

5.3.3 Major sense relations 76

5.4 Sense relations between sentences 81

5.4.1 S1 is synonymous with S2(S1 is equivalent to S2) 81

5.4.2 S1 contradicts S2(S1 is inconsistent with S2) 82

5.4.3 S1 entails S2(S1 is an entailment of S2） 82

5.4.4 S1 presupposes S2(S1 is a prerequisite of S2) 82

5.4.5 S is a contradiction 83

5.4.6 S is semantically anomalous 83

5.5 Componential analysis 83

5.6 Predication analysis 84

5.6.1 Sentence meaning 84

5.6.2 Predication analysis 85

Exercises 86

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 90

6.1 Some basic notions 90

6.1.1 What is pragmatics? 90

6.1.2 Context 90

6.1.3 Pragmatics ＆ semantics 90

6.1.4 Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 91

6.2 Speech act theory 91

6.2.1 Performatives and constatives 91

6.2.2 A theory of the illocutionary act 93

6.2.3 Indirect speech acts 95

6.3 Cooperative principle 96

6.3.1 Violation of quality 97

6.3.2 Violation of quantity 98

6.3.3 Violation of relation 98

6.3.4 Violation of manner 98

6.4 Politeness principle(PP) 99

6.4.1 Two aspects of the PP 99

6.4.2 The six maxims of the PP 99

6.5 Discourse analysis 100

6.5.1 Cohesion 100

6.5.2 Coherence 102

6.5.3 Conversational analysis 103

Exercises 104

Chapter 7 Sociolinguistics 108

7.1 Language and society 108

7.1.1 Speech community and speech variety 108

7.1.2 Linguistic taboo and euphemism 111

7.1.3 Register 112

7.1.4 The standard variety 113

7.1.5 Pidgin and Creole 113

7.1.6 Bilingualism and diglossia 114

7.2 Language and culture 114

7.2.1 What is culture? 114

7.2.2 The relationship between language and culture 115

7.2.3 Some differences between Chinese culture and western culture 116

7.3 Language change 117

7.3.1 Sound change 118

7.3.2 Morphological and syntactic change 118

7.3.3 Semantic change 118

7.3.4 Causes of the language change 119

Exercises 120

Chapter 8 Psycholinguistics 123

8.1 What is psycholinguistics? 123

8.2 First language acquisition 123

8.2.1 Theories of child language acquisition 123

8.2.2 Stages in child language development 125

8.3 Language production 128

8.3.1 Conceptualization 128

8.3.2 Formulation 128

8.3.3 Articulation 129

8.3.4 Self-monitoring 130

8.4 Language comprehension 131

8.4.1 Sound comprehension 131

8.4.2 Word comprehension 131

8.4.3 Sentence comprehension 132

8.4.4 Text comprehension 133

8.4.5 Category of the schema 134

8.5 Language and thought 135

8.5.1 Linguistic Determinism 135

8.5.2 Linguistic Relativity 136

Exercises 136

Chapter 9 Second Language Acquisition 140

9.1 Introduction 140

9.2 Contrastive analysis(CA) 140

9.3 Error analysis(EA) 141

9.4 Interlangnage 142

9.5 Theories in second language acquisition 143

9.6 Individual differences 145

9.6.1 Age 145

9.6.2 Personality 145

9.6.3 Motivation 146

9.6.4 Language aptitude 146

9.6.5 Cognitive style 147

9.6.6 Learning strategies 148

Exercises 149

Chapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 153

10.1 What is applied linguistics? 153

10.2 Some major types of foreign language teaching 153

10.2.1 The Grammar-Translation Method(GTM) 153

10.2.2 The Audiolingual Method 154

10.2.3 Cognitive Approach 156

10.2.4 The Communicative Language Teaching(CLT) 158

10.2.5 Task-based Language Teaching(TBLT) 160

10.3 Some other types of foreign language teaching 162

10.4 Language testing 163

10.4.1 Five basic tests 163

10.4.2 Subjective and objective tests 164

10.4.3 Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced tests 165

10.4.4 Principles of language testing 166

Exercises 168

Appendix Ⅰ Some Famous Linguists and Their Theories 172

1．Saussure and modern linguistics 172

2．Bloomfield and American structuralism 173

3．Chomsky and generative grammar 175

4．Halliday and systemic-functional grammar 179

Appendix Ⅱ Tests and Key to Exercises and Tests 186

1．Tests 186

Test 1 186

Test 2 188

2．Key to exercises and tests 191

Appendix Ⅲ Glossary 218

Bibliography 233