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INTRODUCTION 3

Chapter 1. Collective violence and international criminal justice - towards an interdisciplinary approach&Alette SMEULERS 3

1. Introduction 3

2. A brief history of the international criminal justice system 3

3. New areas of expertise 6

4. Outline of the book 8

References 13

PART I. PERPETRATORS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES 19

Chapter 2. The ordinariness of extraordinary evil: the making of perpetrators of collective violence&James E. WALLER 19

1. Introduction 19

2. Ordinary origins of extraordinary human evil 22

3. Cultural construction of worldview 26

4. Psychological construction of the "other" 28

5. Social construction of cruelty 31

6. Conclusion 36

References 37

Chapter 3. Rethinking the subjectivity of perpetrators of political violence&Don FOSTER 39

1. Introduction 39

2. Dominant accounts of perpetrators 40

3. Criticism of the dominant accounts 42

4. An alternative approach 44

5. Two case studies 48

5.1. The Eichmann case 48

5.2. The case of John Deegan 54

6. Implications and concluding remarks 58

References 60

PART II. COLLECTIVE CRIMES - INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY 65

Chapter 4. Discourses on international criminality&Athanasios CHOULIARAS 65

1. Introduction 65

2. The collective nature of core crimes as the common ground of different fields of knowledge 67

3. Criminology: state and state-corporate crime as instances of organizational deviance 70

4. International criminal law: looking for the individual criminal, losing the delinquent state 77

4.1. Contextual elements and admissibility criteria: 'Walks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck'... Ain't a duck! 78

4.2. Modes of individual criminal liability: in search of the organizational role 84

5. The rationale for the international criminal justice system 89

6. Discussion 92

References 94

Chapter 5. Ascribing individual liability within a bureaucracy of murder&Mark OSIEL 105

1. Introduction 105

2. Easing superior responsibility: a new concept of effective control 106

2.1. Roxin's theory of "domination over an organizational apparatus" 107

3. Difficulties with Roxin's approach: a post-Weberian update 110

3.1. The fungibility of subordinates 114

3.2. Discretion enjoyed by subordinates 114

3.3. Non-western military organization 116

3.4. Shifting the evidentiary onus 119

3.5. The sociology of mass atrocity 122

3.6. The mental element 124

4. Conclusion 125

References 127

Chapter 6. Seizing the "Grotian Moment": application of joint criminal enterprise liability to the proceedings of the Cambodia genocide tribunal&Michael P. SCHARF 131

1. Introduction 131

2. Did the Nuremberg precedent establish JCE as customary international law? 134

2.1. Application of JCE at Nuremberg 134

2.2. Nuremberg as a "Grotian Moment" 143

2.3. The Concept of "Grotian Moment" 146

3. Conclusion 148

References 151

Chapter 7. Criminologically explained reality of genocide, structure of the offence and the 'intent to destroy' requirement&Kai AMBOS 153

1. Introduction 153

2. Typologies in criminology 154

3. The significance of the criminological typology of perpetrators for the offence of genocide 159

4. Correspondence of categories of international criminal law with criminological typologies of perpetrators 163

4.1. Regarding top-level perpetrators "intent to destroy" means knowledge and purpose 166

4.2. As to mid-level perpetrators the knowledge-based approach is applicable 166

4.3. Regarding the low-level perpetrators it is necessary to distinguish between state agents and private actors. While the former are normally informed about the genocidal (state) plan, the latter are not 168

5. Conclusion: the structure of the genocide offence in light of the criminological findings 170

References 171

Chapter 8. ICTY and the culpability of different types of perpetrators of international crimes&Alette SMEULERS and Barbora HOLA 175

1. Introduction 175

2. Culpability of different types of perpetrators 179

2.1. Highest level of blameworthiness: criminal masterminds 180

2.2. High level of blameworthiness: careerists and fanatics 181

2.3. Medium level of blameworthiness: devoted warriors 183

2.4. Low level of blameworthiness: "criminals and sadists" and the otherwise law abiding citizens 185

2.5. Lowest level of blameworthiness: compromised perpetrator 188

3. ICTY sentencing case law 188

4. Empirical findings 190

4.1. Methodology 190

4.1.1. Data Collection 190

4.1.2. Method 193

4.2. Results 194

4.3. Discussion 200

5. Conclusions 203

References 204

Chapter 9. Child soldiers: agency, enlistment, and the collectivization of innocence&Mark A. DRUMBL 207

1. Introduction 207

2. Criminally punishing adults for the conscription, enlistment, or use of child soldiers in hostilities 210

2.1. Special Court for Sierra Leone 210

2.2. International Criminal Court 213

2.3. The agency of child soldiers: assumptions, narratives, and strategies 215

2.4. Conclusion 218

3. How do children end up in fighting forces? 218

3.1. Forced conscription 219

3.2. Voluntary enlistment 222

3.3. Summary 226

4. Conclusion 227

References 229

PART III. REFLECTIONS ON INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE ICC 235

Chapter 10. The rough edges of the delicate mosaic: complexity theory and the early practice of the International Criminal Court&Salim A. NAKHJAVANI 235

1. Introduction 235

2. Some characteristics of complex adaptive systems 237

3. Lens, metaphor, analogy, model... or nothing at all? 239

4. Seeking complexity in international criminal justice 243

4.1. The entry-into-force of the Rome Statute sets in motion a nonlinear, dynamic system 243

4.2. Outcomes of decisions of the Court may be sensitively dependent on initial conditions and path-dependent 245

4.3. The Rome Statute may co-evolve with 'neighboring' treaties 246

5. Novel insights or repackaged goods? 250

References 251

Chapter 11. The law and politics of self-referrals&Sarah NOUWEN and Wouter WERNER 255

1. Introduction 255

2. Self-referrals and complementarity 257

2.1. Inaction as a ground for admissibility 260

2.2. Narrowing down the definition of a 'case' 264

2.3. Broadening the concept of unwillingness 265

2.4. Conclusion: legal aspects of self-referrals 267

3. The politics of self-referrals 267

3.1. ICC politics 267

3.2. National politics 268

3.3. Conclusion: politics of self-referrals 269

References 270

PART IV. FROM FACTS TO FIGURES 275

Chapter 12. On research methods for international crimes - methodological issues in the empirical study of international crimes&Catrien BIJLEVELD 275

1. Introduction 275

2. Criminological areas of study 276

3. Methodological backdrop to social science research 278

3.1. Working with samples 278

3.2. Causality 280

3.3. The role of assumptions 282

4. Research on international crimes 283

4.1. Studying prevalence 283

4.2. Etiology 288

4.3. (Legal) reaction 291

4.4. Victim studies 292

5. Conclusion and some ways forward 294

References 295

Chapter 13. Sexual violence during war: variation and accountability&Elisabeth Jean WOOD 297

1. Introduction 297

2. Key concepts 299

3. Incomplete explanations 303

3.1. Type of conflict 303

3.2. Opportunity 303

3.3. Incentives 305

3.4. Rape as a substitution for consensual sex 306

3.5. Female combatants 307

3.6. Sexual violence as instrumental for the group 307

4. Theoretical framework 309

4.1. Individual combatants 309

4.2. Leadership strategy 310

4.3. Institutions for combatant socialization 310

4.4. Wartime dynamics 312

4.5. Military hierarchy 313

5. When is wartime rape a strategy of war? When is it rare? Top-down and bottom-across logics 314

5.1. Explaining the absence of sexual violence: two logics 315

5.1.1. The top-down logic 315

5.1.2. The bottom-across logic 317

5.2. Explaining rape as a strategy (or tactic) of war: two logics 318

5.2.1. Top-down logic: rape as a strategy of war 318

5.2.2. Bottom-across logic: rape as a tactic of war 318

6. Conclusion 319

References 322

Chapter 14. Learning the hard way at the ICTY: statistical evidence of human rights violations in an adversarial information environment&Amelia HOOVER GREEN 325

1. Introduction 325

2. The prosecution's analysis 327

2.1. Descriptive analysis 327

2.2. Causal analysis 330

3. Defense challenges 333

3.1. Defining "statistics" and "the scientific method" 334

3.2. "Fundamental flaws" 336

4. The judgment 337

5. Lessons learned 343

6. Conclusions 349

References 350

PART V. FROM FIGURES TO FACTS 355

Chapter 15. Methodology for the criminal investigation of international crimes&Xabier AGIRRE ARANBURU 355

1. Introduction 355

2. Seize the opportunity structure 356

3. Beware of the inquisitorial temptation 358

4. Take a multi-disciplinary approach 361

5. Disregard simplistic explanations 364

6. Analysis first 365

7. Focus on specific and contextual elements 367

8. Prioritize documentary evidence 369

9. Look at the evidence as sample 375

10. Prioritize insider and international witnesses 376

11. Anticipate security needs 379

References 380

Chapter 16. Closing the gap in truth finding: from the facts of the field to the judge's chambers&Martin WITTEVEEN 383

1. Introduction 383

2. The facts 384

3. The investigation 386

3.1. Time lapse 386

3.2. Consequences of time lapse 388

3.3. Lack of documentation 388

4. Issues of witnesses' memory 389

4.1. Encoding phase 390

4.2. Retention phase 392

4.3. Retrieval phase 393

5. Witnesses' recount of the facts - unprecedented challenges in the context of international crimes 395

5.1. Trauma 396

5.2. Quantative answers 397

5.3. Misunderstandings 398

5.4. Language challenges 399

5.4.1. Rare languages 400

5.4.2. Translation errors 400

5.4.3. Lack of vocabulary 401

5.5. Cultural differences 402

5.5.1. Education and personal identities 402

5.5.2. Behavior of witnesses 403

5.5.3. Misinterpretation 404

5.5.4. Witness's reluctance 404

5.5.5. Oral culture and lack of sourcing 405

6. After the witnesses the professionals take over 406

6.1. Role of investigators 406

6.2. Role of the prosecutor or trial attorney 407

6.3. Role of the judges 408

6.4. Dilemmas and possible changes 409

7. The final stage - The judge's chambers 411

References 411

Chapter 17. Preserving the overview of law and facts: the Case Matrix&Morten BERGSMO, Olympia BEKOU and Annika JONES 413

1. Introduction 413

2. Some difficulties faced in relating law to facts in core international crimes cases 416

2.1. Understanding the legal requirements for the prosecution of core international crimes 416

2.2. Applying the legal requirements to large quantities of evidence 419

3. The significance of an informed, efficient and precise approach to the application of law to facts in core international crimes cases 420

3.1. The ability to pursue justice and the quality of the process 421

3.2. The efficiency of the criminal justice process and the fight against impunity 422

3.3. Promotion of the rights of the accused 423

3.4. Summary 424

4. The Case Matrix and the facilitation of the application of law to facts 425

4.1. The Case Matrix 425

4.2. The facilitation of the application of law to facts through use of the Case Matrix 428

5. The ICC and the Case Matrix 429

5.1. Adoption of the Case Matrix logic 429

5.2. Justifications for the approach of the Chambers 431

5.2.1. Expediency of the criminal process 431

5.2.2. Protection of the rights of the accused 432

6. Conclusion 433

References 433

EPILOGUE 439

Chapter 18. Future perspectives on collective violence and international criminal justice&Stephan PARMENTIER and Estelle ZINSSTAG 439

1. Introduction 439

2. Types of violence: collective, international and political 439

3. Types of responses: criminal prosecutions and beyond 442

4. The need for an interdisciplinary approach 445

References 445

Contributors 447