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Part Ⅰ Restoration Process 1

Chapter 1 Introduction 3

1.1 Human-Caused Ecological Change 4

1.2 The Historical Roots of Ecological Restoration 7

Colonial solutions for new realms 7

Soil and water protection 8

Restoring natural heritage 11

Community-based restoration 14

1.3Defining Ecological Restoration 15

1.4 Motivations and Incentives for Ecological Restoration 16

Cultural drivers 17

Economic drivers 18

Demographic drivers 20

Technological drivers 21

Sociopolitical drivers 22

1.5 Major Purposes of Ecological Restoration 24

Species-based restoration 25

Restoration of ecosystem function 25

Restoration of ecosystem services 26

A comprehensive framework 27

Summary 28

Apply What You’ve Learned 29

Chapter 2 Diagnosis and Goal Setting 31

2.1 Building Conceptual Ecological Models 32

2.2 Drivers of Ecological Change 34

Habitat conversion 36

Pollution 37

Overexploitation 38

Species introductions 40

Climate change 41

Natural drivers 41

2.3 Ecological Effects 42

Population declines 44

Effects of habitat fragmentation 45

Spread of introduced species 48

Species interactions 49

Disturbances and succession 51

Ecosystem decline 52

2.4 Assessing Current Conditions 55

Ecoregions 55

Landscape analysis 56

Site analysis 60

Species analysis 62

2.5 Synoptic Assessment of Ecological Resilience 64

Resilience and response to stress 65

Resilience classification schemes 66

2.6 Establishing Goals for Ecological Restoration 67

Approaches to goal setting 67

Crafting SMART goals 69

Goal setting for large-scale and high-risk restorations 70

Using and refining goals during the restoration process 73

Summary 73

Apply What You’ve Learned 74

Chapter 3 Planning 77

3.1 Components of a Restoration Plan 77

3.2 Planners and Stakeholders 79

3.3 Scope of Planning 81

3.4 Overview of the Planning Process 83

3.5 Selecting and Building Scenarios 84

Selecting scenarios 85

Building scenarios 87

3.6 Evaluating Alternative Futures 88

3.7 Investigating Restoration Techniques 90

Identifying potentially suitable techniques 90

Restoration strategies and resilience 91

3.8 Assessing the Feasibility of Proposed Restoration Plans 93

3.9 Using and Refining Plans 95

Summary 96

Apply What You’ve Learned 97

Chapter 4 Social and Institutional Support 99

4.1 Societal Mechanisms for Creating Restoration Opportunities 100

Legal mechanisms 100

Economic mechanisms 103

Social and behavioral mechanisms 106

4.2 Organizations Engaged in Ecological Restorations 108

Government 108

Education，business，and industry 110

Nongovernmental organizations 115

Community-based organizations 116

4.3 Establishing and Sustaining Community-Based Organizations 118

Launching a community-based organization 118

Leadership and governance 120

Financial planning and fundraising 121

Volunteers，staff，and project management 121

Collaborating with other organizations 124

4.4 Organizational Resilience 125

Situation awareness 126

Management of keystone vulnerabilities 127

Adaptive capacity 129

Summary 130

Apply What You’ve Learned 132

Chapter 5 Monitoring and Evaluation 133

5.1 Adaptive Management 134

5.2 Choosing Monitoring Parameters 139

5.3 Monitoring Protocols 145

Data collection methods 145

Timing，frequency，and duration 146

Spatial issues 148

5.4 Interpreting Monitoring Data 153

Comparisons to reference sites 153

Data analysis 155

Using data for decision making 156

5.5 Managing Project Records and Monitoring Data Sets 158

Case histories 160

Data management 160

5.6 Planning Monitoring Logistics 161

Summary 163

Apply What You’ve Learned 164

Part Ⅱ Restoration Approaches 167

Chapter 6 Landforms and Hydrology 169

6.1 Wind 171

Wind-shaped landforms 171

Human alterations to aeolian processes 172

Restoration of wind-eroded landscapes 174

6.2 Surface Runoff and Erosion 177

Water movement through landscapes 178

Human alterations to surface runoff 180

Restoration approaches for reducing surface runoff and soil erosion 182

6.3 Groundwater 187

Groundwater movement 187

Human alterations to groundwater supplies 188

Restoration of groundwater flow systems 189

6.4 Inland Wetland and Lake Hydrology 191

Hydrology of wetlands and lakes 192

Human alterations to wetland hydrology 194

Restoration of wetland hydrology 196

6.5 River Hydrology and Landforms 201

Processes that shape rivers 202

Human alterations to river landforms and hydrology 207

Restoration approaches for rivers 209

6.6 Estuarine and Marine Environments 216

Landforms and hydrology in coastal environments 216

Human alterations to coastal landforms and hydrology 218

Restoration of estuarine and marine landforms and hydrology 220

6.7 Monitoring Landform and Hydrologic Change in Response to Restoration Action 223

Summary 225

Apply What You’ve Learned 227

Chapter 7 Soil and Water Quality 229

7.1 The Critical Zone 230

Environments within the critical zone 230

Biogeochemical cycles 231

Biota in the critical zone 233

Human-caused changes to biogeochemical cycles 235

7.2 Rebuilding Impoverished Soils 244

Soil recovery and revegetation 246

Topsoil handling and application 247

Accelerating soil development 248

7.3 Reducing Nutrient Levels in Overenriched Soils 251

7.4 Remediating Toxic Soils 252

Contaminant sources 253

Treatments for soil acidity and salinity 255

Treatments for metals and organic toxins 256

7.5 Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment 258

7.6 Reversing Eutrophication in Aquatic Systems 261

Eutrophication in marine and coastal ecosystems 261

Eutrophication in freshwater lakes and rivers 263

7.7 Remediating Toxins in Surface Waters 264

Treatments for acidity and metals 265

Treatments for oil spills 267

7.8 Monitoring Changes in Water and Soil Quality 268

Monitoring water quality 269

Monitoring soil quality 271

Summary 273

Apply What You’ve Learned 275

Chapter 8 Plants 277

8.1 Facilitating Natural Recolonization 278

Propagule sources for natural recolonization 279

Promoting establishment 282

Nurse plants and catalysts 284

Limitations of natural recolonization 285

8.2 Invasive Plant Control 286

Landscape-level invasive plant control 289

Site-based invasive plant control 290

Herbicide use in ecological restoration 292

Devising and implementing an invasive plant control strategy 295

8.3 General Considerations for Planting and Seeding 296

Species selection 297

Plants or seeds？ 299

Sources of seeds and plants 300

Cultivar use in ecological restoration 303

8.4 Using Seeds for Revegetation 305

Seeds in topsoil transfers 305

Designing seed mixes 306

Seeding rates 307

Seed collecting 308

Seed cleaning and storage 310

Dormancy and germination 311

Seed quality 312

Seeding methods 313

8.5 Using Plants for Revegetation 314

Nursery-produced plants 315

Vegetative transplants 317

Planting plans 318

Plant installation 321

8.6 Restoring Microbial Mutualists 322

8.7 Establishing and Managing Plant Communities 325

8.8 Monitoring Restored Plant Communities and Populations 327

Summary 332

Apply What You’ve Learned 334

Chapter 9 Invertebrates 337

9.1 Invertebrate Habitat 338

9.2 Selecting Focal Invertebrates 341

9.3 Habitat Restoration 344

Habitat structure 344

Habitat heterogeneity 347

Landscape-scale stressors 349

Single-species considerations 352

9.4 Nontarget Impacts of Restoration Actions on Invertebrates 353

9.5 Control of Introduced Invertebrates 354

9.6 Invertebrate Species Translocations 356

Establishing a rationale for translocations 356

Founding populations 357

Releases 361

9.7 Management of Invertebrate Habitat 364

9.8 Monitoring Invertebrates in Restored Ecosystems 366

Summary 368

Apply What You’ve Learned 371

Chapter 10 Vertebrates 373

10.1 Selecting Focal Vertebrates 374

10.2 Reducing Effects of Fragmentation and Lost Connectivity 377

10.3 Site-Based Habitat Restoration 380

10.4 Curbing Overexploitation 385

10.5 Manipulating Trophic Interactions 389

10.6 Controlling Introduced Vertebrates 390

Eradication versus reduction 390

Physical methods 392

Chemical methods 393

Biological methods 394

Devising a control program 395

Unexpected consequences of invasive vertebrate control 395

10.7 Vertebrate Species Translocations 397

Translocation assessment and planning 397

Source populations 399

Captive breeding 401

Releases 405

10.8 Monitoring Vertebrates in Restored Ecosystems 409

Summary 412

Apply What You’ve Learned 414

Part Ⅲ Restoration Cases 415

Case A Alaska’s North Slope 417

Case B Baghmara Community Forest 425

Case C Carpentaria Ghost Nets Programme 431

Case D Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 437

Case E Jarrah Forests 447

Case F Large Blue Butterfly 455

Case G Mana Island 461

Case H Minneapolis Chain of Lakes 471

Case I Monte Pascoal-Pau Brasil Corridor Project 479

Case J Namaqualand Restoration Initiative 485

Case K Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge 493

Case L Provo River 503

Case M Sargent’s Cherry Palm 513

Case N Skjern River 521

Case O Sudbury Barrens 527

Case P Sweetwater Marsh 535

Case Q Tasmanian Devil 543

Case R Tram Chim National Park 551

Case S Westhoek Nature Reserve 559

Illustration Credits 569

Glossary 571

References 581

Index 603