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Part One 3

Ⅰ EVALUATION AND THE DESCRIPTION OF LAW 3

Ⅰ.1. The Formation of Concepts for Descriptive Social Science 3

Ⅰ.2. Attention to Practical Point 6

Ⅰ.3. Selection of Central Case and Focal Meaning 9

Ⅰ.4. Selection of viewpoint 11

Ⅰ.5. The Theory of Natural Law 18

Notes 19

Ⅱ IMAGES AND OBJECTIONS 23

Ⅱ.1. Natural Law and Theories of Natural Law 23

Ⅱ.2. Legal Validity and Morality 25

Ⅱ.3. The Variety of Human Opinions and Practices 29

Ⅱ.4. The Illicit Inference from Facts to Norms 33

Ⅱ.5. Hume and Clarke on 'Is' and 'Ought' 36

Ⅱ.6. Clarke's Antecedents 42

Ⅱ.7. The 'Perverted Faculty' Argument 48

Ⅱ.8. Natural Law and the Existence and Will of God 48

Notes 50

Part Two 59

Ⅲ A BASIC FORM OF GOOD: KNOWLEDGE 59

Ⅲ.1. An Example 59

Ⅲ.2. From Inclination to Grasp of Value 60

Ⅲ.3. Practical Principle and Participation in Value 63

Ⅲ.4. The Self-evidence of the Good of Knowledge 64

Ⅲ.5. 'Object of Desire' and Objectivity 69

Ⅲ.6. Scepticism about this Basic Value is Indefensible 73

Notes 75

Ⅳ THE OTHER BASIC VALUES 81

Ⅳ.1. Theoretical Studies of'Universal' Values 81

Ⅳ.2. The Basic Forms of Human Good 85

A Practical Reflection 85

A. Life 86

B. Knowledge 87

C. Play 87

D. Aesthetic experience 87

E. Sociability (friendship) 88

F. Practical reasonableness 88

G. 'Religion' 89

Ⅳ.3. An Exhaustive List? 90

Ⅳ.4. All Equally Fundamental 92

Ⅳ.5. Is Pleasure the Point of It All? 95

Notes 97

Ⅴ THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PRACTICAL REASONABLENESS 100

Ⅴ.1. The Good of Practical Reasonableness Structures Our Pursuit of Goods 100

Ⅴ.2. A Coherent Plan of Life 103

Ⅴ.3. No Arbitrary Preferences Amongst Values 105

Ⅴ.4. No Arbitrary Preferences Amongst Persons 106

Ⅴ.5. Detachment and Commitment 109

Ⅴ.6. The (Limited) Relevance of Consequences: Efficiency, Within Reason 111

Ⅴ.7. Respect for Every Basic Value in Every Act 118

Ⅴ.8. The Requirements of the Common Good 125

Ⅴ.9. Following One's Conscience 125

Ⅴ.lO. The Product of these Requirements: Morality 126

Notes 127

Ⅵ COMMUNITY, COMMUNITIES, AND COMMON GOOD 134

Ⅵ.1. Reasonableness and Self-interest 134

Ⅵ.2. Types of Unifying Relationship 135

Ⅵ.3. 'Business' Community and 'Play' Community 139

Ⅵ.4. Friendship 141

Ⅵ.5. 'Communism' and 'Subsidiarity' 144

Ⅵ.6. Complete Community 147

Ⅵ.7. The Existence of a Community 150

Ⅵ.8. The Common Good 154

Notes 156

Ⅶ JUSTICE 161

Ⅶ.1. Elements of Justice 161

Ⅶ.2. General Justice 164

Ⅶ.3. Distributive Justice 165

Ⅶ.4. Criteria of Distributive Justice 173

Ⅶ.5. Commutative Justice 177

Ⅶ.6. Justice and the State 184

Ⅶ.7. An Example of Justice: Bankruptcy 188

Notes 193

Ⅷ RIGHTS 198

Ⅷ.1. 'Natural', 'Human', or 'Moral' Rights 198

Ⅷ.2. An Analysis of Rights-talk 199

Ⅷ.3. Are Duties 'Prior to' Rights? 205

Ⅷ.4. Rights and the Common Good 210

Ⅷ.5. The Specification of Rights 218

Ⅷ.6. Rights and Equality of Concern and Respect 221

Ⅷ.7. Absolute Human Rights 223

Notes 226

Ⅸ AUTHORITY 231

Ⅸ.1. The Need for Authority 231

Ⅸ.2. The Meanings of 'Authority' 233

Ⅸ.3. Formation of Conventions or Customary Rules 238

Ⅸ.4. The Authority of Rulers 245

Ⅸ.5. 'Bound By Their Own Rules? 252

Notes 254

Ⅹ LAW 260

Ⅹ.1. Law and Coercion 260

Ⅹ.2. Unjust Punishment 265

Ⅹ.3. The Main Features of Legal Order 266

Ⅹ.4. The Rule of Law 270

Ⅹ.5. Limits of the Rule of Law 273

Ⅹ.6. A Definition of Law 276

Ⅹ.7. Derivation of'Positive' from 'Natural' Law 281

Notes 291

ⅩⅠ OBLIGATION 297

ⅩⅠ.l. 'Obligation', 'Ought', and Rational Necessity 297

ⅩⅠ.2. Promissory Obligation 298

ⅩⅠ.3. Variable and Invariant Obligatory Force 308

ⅩⅠ.4. 'Legally Obligatory': the Legal Sense and the Moral Sense 314

ⅩⅠ.5. Contractual Obligation in Law: Performance or Compensation? 320

ⅩⅠ.6. Legal Obligation in the Moral Sense: Performance or Submission to Penalty? 325

ⅩⅠ.7. Obligation and Legislative Will 330

ⅩⅠ.8. 'Reason' and 'Will' in Decision, Legislation, and Compliance with Law 337

ⅩⅠ.9. Moral Obligation and God's Will 342

Notes 343

ⅩⅡ UNJUST LAWS 351

ⅩⅡ.1. A Subordinate Concern of Natural Law Theory 351

ⅩⅡ.2. Types of Injustice in Law 352

ⅩⅡ.3. Effects of Injustice on Obligation 354

ⅩⅡ.4. 'Lex Injusta Non Est Lex' 363

Notes 367

Part Three 371

ⅩⅢ NATURE, REASON, GOD 371

ⅩⅢ.1. Further Questions about the Point of Human Existence 371

ⅩⅢ.2. Orders, Disorders, and the Explanation of Existence 378

ⅩⅢ.3. Divine Nature and 'Eternal Law': Speculation and Revelation 388

ⅩⅢ.4. Natural Law as 'Participation of Eternal Law' 398

ⅩⅢ.5. Concluding Reflections on the Point and Force of Practical Reasonableness 403

Notes 411

Postscript 414

Bibliography 480

Index 485