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Review and Introduction 1

PART Ⅰ：NOMINAL STRUCTURE 13

Chapter 1—Nonus 13

1.1．Conceptual Basis 13

1.1.1．A Cognitive Model 13

1.1.2．An Abstract Characterization 15

1.1.3．A Polar Opposition 19

1.2．Nominalization 22

1.2.1．Kinds 23

1.2.1.1．Alternate Profiling 23

1.2.1.2．Type vs.Instance Nominalizations 31

1.2.2．Periphrasis 35

1.2.3．Predictability 43

Chapter 2—Nominals：Functional Organization 51

2.1．Semantic Functions 51

2.2．Instantiation 55

2.2.1．Type vs.Instance 55

2.2.2．Proper Names 58

2.2.3．Type Hierarchies 60

2.2.4．Predicate Nominative Constructions 64

2.2.5．Role Specifications 71

2.3．Quantity 73

2.3.1．Number 74

2.3.2．Quantifiers 81

2.4．Epistemic Predications 89

Chapter 3—Nominals：Grounding and Quantification 96

3.1．Definiteness 96

3.1.1．The Definite Article 97

3.1.2．The Indefinite Article 103

3.2．Relative Quantifiers 107

3.2.1．Proportional Quantifiers 107

3.2.2．Other Universal Quantifiers 111

3.3．Quantificational Interactions 118

3.3.1．Replicate Processes and Participants 118

3.3.2．Quantifier Scope 125

3.3.3．Scope of Negation 132

Chapter 4—Nominal Constructions 142

4.1．Structural Organization 142

4.1.1．Canonical Structure 142

4.1.2．Other Configurations 148

4.2．Patterns and Restrictions 152

4.2.1．Class Schemas 152

4.2.2．Constructional Schemas 156

4.2.3．Larger Configurations 159

4.3．Functional Alternatives 163

4.3.1．Noun Classifiers 164

4.3.2．Possessive Constructions 167

4.3.2.1．Abstract Possession 169

4.3.2.2．Basic Constructions 172

4.3.2.3．Other Constructions 175

4.4．Inflection and Agreement 180

4.4.1．Noun Classes 180

4.4.2．Gender Inflections 185

4.4.3．Agreement Patterns 186

PART Ⅱ：CLAUSE STRUCTURE 193

Chapter 5—The Auxiliary：Clausal Head 193

5.1．Function and Organization 193

5.2．Voice and Aspect 200

5.2.1．The Passive Construction 200

5.2.2．The Progressive Construction 207

5.2.3．The Perfect Construction 211

5.2.3.1．Current Relevance 211

5.2.3.2．Subjectification 215

5.2.3.3．Synthesis 220

5.3．Patterns and Structure 225

5.3.1．The Basic System 225

5.3.2．Restrictions 228

5.3.3．Componentiality 233

5.3.4．Auxiliary Verbs 238

Chapter 6—The Auxiliary：Grounding 240

6.1．Epistemic Distance 240

6.2．Tense 249

6.2.1．A Naive Characterization 250

6.2.2．Sequence of Tenses 253

6.2.2.1．Indirect Speech 253

6.2.2.2．Reported Modals 256

6.2.2.3．Additional Matters 260

6.2.3．Present Tense 262

6.2.3.1．A Structured World 263

6.2.3.2．A Shifted Deictic Center 266

6.3．Modals 269

6.3.1．Historical Development 269

6.3.2．The Dynamic Evolutionary Model 275

Chapter 7—Transitivity and Grammatical Relations 282

7.1．The Conception of Events 282

7.1.1．Models and Archetypes 283

7.1.2．Conceptual Autonomy 286

7.1.3．Starting Points 291

7.2．The Coding of Events 293

7.2.1．Coding and Construal 294

7.2.2．Unmarked Coding 298

7.3．Basic Grammatical Relations 304

7.3.1．Subject 305

7.3.1.1．Topicality 306

7.3.1.2．A Schematic Definition 309

7.3.1.3．Subjectand Topic 313

7.3.1.4．Universality 317

7.3.2．Direct Object 321

7.3.3．Indirect Object 324

Chapter 8—Marked Clause Structure 330

8.1．Choice of Subject 330

8.1.1．The Effect of Profiling 331

8.1.2．Voice 335

8.1.3．Setting vs.Participant 343

8.1.3.1．Relevance to Transitivity 343

8.1.3.2．Setting-Subject Constructions 345

8.1.3.3．Double-Subject Constructions 348

8.1.3.4．Abstract Settings 351

8.2．Choice of Object 355

8.3．Nondistinct Argument Phenomena 362

8.3.1．Process vs.Participant 362

8.3.2．Reflexivization 367

8.3.3．Unspecificity 372

Chapter 9—Ergativity and Case 378

9.1．Ergative vs.Accusative 378

9.2．Ergativity 386

9.2.1．Correlates of Autonomy 386

9.2.2．Absolute Construal 389

9.2.3．Discourse Function 393

9.2.3.1．Introducing Discourse Participants 393

9.2.3.2．Antipassives 394

9.2.4．Split Ergativity 396

9.3．Case Marking 398

9.3.1．Meaningfulness 398

9.3.2．Case-Marking Constructions 404

9.4．Causative Constructions 408

9.4.1．Grammatical Relauons 409

9.4.2．Case 411

PART Ⅲ：BEYOND THE CLAUSE 417

Chapter 10—Complex Sentences 417

10.1．General Discussion 417

10.1.1．Internal Elaboration 419

10.1.2．Connectors 423

10.1.3．Referential Linkage 429

10.1.4．Global Organization 435

10.2．Complementation 438

10.2.1．Complementizers 439

10.2.1.1．Conceptual Subordination 439

10.2.1.2．Temporal Coincidence 442

10.2.1.3．Objectivity 445

10.2.2．Raising 449

10.2.2.1．Critique 450

10.2.2.2．The Active-Zone Analysis 453

10.2.2.3．Raising vs.Equi 457

Chapter 11—Further Issues 464

11.1．Rule Interactions 464

11.2．Coordination 472

11.2.1．Conjunctions 472

11.2.2．Level of Coordination 476

11.2.3．Differentiation of Conjuncts 479

11.2.4．Phonological Coinstantiation 485

11.3．Anaphora 490

11.4．Speech Acts 494

11.4.1．Domains and Organization 495

11.4.2．Viewing Arrangements 498

11.4.3．Basic Sentence Types 503

Chapter 12—Theoretical Discussion 507

12.1．Metaphors,Goals,and Expectations 507

12.2．The Autonomy Issue 514

12.2.1．Defining the Issue 515

12.2.2．Assessing the Symbolic Alternative 520

12.3．Processing,Rules,and Representations 525

12.3.1．The Connectionist Alternative 526

12.3.2．The Representation of Linguistic Structure 528

12.3.2.1．A Spectrum of Positions 528

12.3.2.2．The Nature of Linguistic Rules 533

Conclusion and Prospectus 537

REFERENCE MATTER 543

Glossary 543

References 557

Index 575