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INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER Ⅰ．A brief survey of the history of linguistics 1

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Data and aims of linguistics:connexions with related sciences 6

CHAPTER Ⅲ．The object of study. 8

1．On defining a language 8

2．Linguistic structure:its place among the facts of language 11

3．Languages and their place in human affairs.Semiology 15

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech 18

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Internal and external elements of a language 21

CHAPTER Ⅵ．Representation of a language by writing. 24

1．Why it is necessary to study this topic 24

2．The prestige of writing:reasons for its ascendancy over the spoken word 24

3．Systems of writing 26

4．Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation 27

5．Consequences of this inconsistency 29

CHAPTER Ⅶ．Physiological Phonetics. 32

1．Definition of the subject 32

2．Transcription 33

3．Writing as evidence 34

APPENDIX PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PHONETICS 39

CHAPTER Ⅰ．Sound types. 39

1．On defining speech sounds 39

2．The vocal apparatus and how it works 41

3．Classification of sounds by oral articulation 44

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Sounds in spoken sequences. 50

1．Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences 50

2．Adduction and abduction 52

3．Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence 54

4．Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks 57

5．Criticism of theories of syllabification 58

6．Duration of adduction and abduction 59

7．Sounds of aperture 4. Diphthongs. Questions of spelling 60

Editorial note 62

PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES 65

CHAPTER Ⅰ．Nature of the linguistic sign. 65

1．Sign,signification,signal 65

2．First principle:the sign is arbitrary 67

3．Second principle:linear character of the signal 69

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Invariability and variability of the sign. 71

1．Invariability 71

2．Variability 74

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics. 79

1．Internal duality of all sciences concerned with values 79

2．Internal duality and the history of linguistics 81

3．Examples of internal duality 83

4．Difference between the two orders illustrated by comparisons 87

5．Synchronic and diachronic linguistics.Their methods and principles contrasted 89

6．Synchronic laws and diachronic laws 90

7．Is there a panchronic point of view? 94

8．Consequences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony 94

9．Conclusious 96

PART TWO SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS 99

CHAPTER Ⅰ．General observations 99

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Concrete entities of a language. 101

1．Entities and units．Definitions 101

2．Methods of delimitation 102

3．Practical difficulties of delimitation 103

4．Conclusion 105

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Identities,realities,values 106

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistic value. 110

1．The language as thought organised in sound 110

2．Linguistic value:conceptual aspects 112

3．Linguistic value:material aspects 116

4．The sign as a whole 118

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Syntagmatic relations and associative relations. 121

1．Definitions 121

2．Syntagmatic relations 122

3．Associative relations 123

CHAPTER Ⅵ．The language mechanism. 126

1．Syntagmatic interdependences 126

2．Simultaneous functioning of both types of group 127

3．Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness 130

CHAPTER Ⅶ．Grammar and its subdivisions. 133

1．Definitions.Traditional divisions 133

2．Rational divisions 135

CHAPTER Ⅷ．Abstract entities in grammar 136

PART THREE DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS 139

CHAPTER Ⅰ．General observations 139

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Sound changes. 143

1．Their absolute regularity 143

2．Conditioning of sound changes 143

3．Methodological considerations 145

4．Causes of sound change 146

5．The scope of sound change is unpredictable 150

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Grammatical consequences of phonetic evolution. 152

1．Breaking grammatical links 152

2．Obliteration of word-composition 153

3．There are no phonetic doublets 154

4．Alternation 155

5．Laws of alternation 157

6．Alternation and grammatical link 159

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Analogy. 160

1．Definition and examples 160

2．Analogies are not changes 162

3．Analogy as the creative principle in languages 164

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Analogy and evolution. 167

1．How an analogical innovation enters the language 167

2．Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interpretation 168

3．Analogy as a principle of renovation and conservation 170

CHAPTER Ⅵ．Popular etymology 172

CHAPTER Ⅶ．Agglutination. 175

1．Definition 175

2．Agglutination and analogy 176

CHAPTER Ⅷ．Diachronic units,identities and realities 178

APPENDICES 182

A．Subjective and objective analysis 182

B．Subjective analysis and determination of units smaller than the word 183

C．Etymology 187

PART FOUR GEOGRAPHICAL LINGUISTICS 189

CHAPTER Ⅰ．On the diversity of languages 189

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Geographical diversity:its complexity. 192

1．Coexistence of several languages in the seme place 192

2．Literary language and local dialect 193

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Causes of geographical diversity. 196

1．Time,the essential cause 196

2．Linguistic areas affected by time 198

3．Dialects have no natural boundaries 200

4．Languages have no natural boundaries 202

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Propagation of linguistic waves. 204

1．Force of intercourse and parochialism 204

2．A single principle underlying both forces 206

3．Linguistic differentiation in separate areas 206

PART FIVE QUESTIONS OF RETROSPECTIVE LINGUISTICS CONCLUSION 211

CHAPTER Ⅰ．The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics 211

CHAPTER Ⅱ．Earliest languages and prototypes 214

CHAPTER Ⅲ．Reconstructions. 217

1．Their nature and purpose 217

2．Degree of certainty of reconstructions 219

CHAPTER Ⅳ．Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory. 221

1．Languages and races 221

2．Ethnicity 222

3．Linguistic paleontology 223

4．Linguistic types and group mentality 225

CHAPTER Ⅴ．Language families and linguistic types 227

INDEX 231

文库索引 237