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1 General linguistics:the scope of the subject 1

1.1 General linguistics as the study of language 1

1.1.1 Languages and languages 1

1.1.2 Descriptive,historical,and comparative linguistics 4

1.1.3 The term 'philology' 6

1.2 Linguistics as a science 6

1.2.1 Implications of the term 'science' 6

1.2.2 Practical applications 10

1.3 The range of general linguistics 11

1.3.1 Levels of analysis 11

1.3.2 Language and communication 12

1.3.3 Phonetics,phonology,grammar,semantics 19

1.4 Semantics 21

1.4.1 Philosophical and linguistic interest in meaning 21

1.4.2 Word meaning 22

1.4.3 Sentence meaning 27

1.4.4 Extralinguistic context 28

1.4.5 Translation 31

General bibliography 34

Bibliography for Chapter 1 38

Notes to Chapter 1 40

2 Theoretical and methodological considerations 43

2.1 Abstractions 43

2.1.1 The status of linguistic abstractions 43

2.1.2 Structural linguistics:syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 46

2.2 Dialect,idiolect,style 48

2.2.1 Dialects as subdivisions of languages 48

2.2.2 Dialect mapping:isoglosses 51

2.2.3 Class dialects and'standard languages' 54

2.2.4 Criteria for determining dialect status 56

2.2.5 Linguistic tendencies affecting dialectal divisions 58

2.3 General and particular 60

2.4 The structural treatment of lexical meaning 64

2.4.1 Lexical interrelations 64

2.4.2 Collocation 64

2.4.3 Semantic field theory 67

Bibliography for Chapter 2 71

Notes to Chapter 2 72

3 Phonetics 77

3.1 Articulatory phonetics 77

3.1.1 The spoken foundation of language 77

3.1.2 Primacy of articulatory phonetics 78

3.1.3 The physiological basis of speaking 80

3.2 The organs of speech 82

3.2.1 The glottis 82

3.2.2 The supraglottal organs of speech 83

3.2.3 Nasalization 84

3.3 Segmentation:vowel and consonant 85

3.3.1 Segmentation 85

3.3.2 Vowels and consonants:transcription 85

3.3.3 Vowels 87

3.3.4 Consonants 93

3.4 Acoustic phonetics 98

3.5 Plurisegmental features 101

3.5.1 The continuum of articulation 101

3.5.2 Glottal and supraglottal features 102

3.5.3 Stress 103

3.5.4 Pitch 105

3.5.5 Voice quality 107

3.6 Phonetics in linguistics 110

Bibliography for Chapter 3 111

Notes to Chapter 3 112

4 Phonology 114

4.1 Speech and writing 114

4.2 Narrow and broad transcription:phonetics and phonology 118

4.3 The phoneme theory 121

4.3.1 The phonemic principle,phonemics 121

4.3.2 Segmental phonemes 122

4.3.3 Phonemic analysis of length and stress 126

4.3.4 The syllable 129

4.3.5 Tone phonemes 134

4.3.6 Intonation 136

4.3.7 Distinctive features 139

4.4 Further developments 144

4.4.1 Classical phoneme theory 144

4.4.2 Juncture phonemes 145

4.4.3 Prosodic phonology 149

4.4.4 Generative phonology 159

4.4.5 Natural generative phonology 162

4.4.6 Rule ordering 163

4.4.7 Autosegmental and metrical phonology 164

Bibliography for Chapter 4 167

Notes to Chapter 4 170

5 Grammar:grammatical elements 177

5.1 Preliminary questions 177

5.1.1 Uses of the term'grammar' 177

5.1.2 Formal grammar 179

5.1.3 The basic units of grammar 181

5.2 The sentence 182

5.3 The word 184

5.3.1 Grammatical criteria of word status 184

5.3.2 Phonological markers of the word unit 188

5.3.3 Variant word forms 191

5.4 The morpheme 192

5.4.1 The morpheme as the minimal grammatical unit 192

5.4.2 Morpheme variants(allomorphs) 193

5.4.3 Bound and free morphemes:root and affix 196

5.5 The semantic status of morphemes 202

Bibliography for Chapters 5 and 6 203

Notes to Chapter 5 206

6 Grammar:grammatical classes,structures,and categories 208

6.1 Syntactic relations 208

6.2 Word classes 210

6.3 Immediate constituents 215

6.3.1 General principles:basic syntactic structures 215

6.3.2 Endocentric and exocentric:subordinate and coordinate 219

6.3.3 Word order and syntactic structure 224

6.3.4 Cross-cutting of immediate constituents and word boundaries 226

6.3.5 Comparison with traditional practice 227

6.4 Grammatical categories 227

6.4.1 Number,gender,case 227

6.4.2 Concord and government 231

6.4.3 Subject and object 235

6.4.4 Morphology in relation to syntax 237

6.4.5 Inflection and derivation 240

6.4.6 Grammatical functions of stress and pitch features 244

6.4.7 Morpheme and category 246

6.5 Subclasses,irregularities,and economy 247

6.6 Grammatical semantics 253

6.6.1 Semantic correlations 253

6.6.2 Meanings of grammatical categories 255

6.6.3 Class meanings and structural meanings 264

6.6.4 Methodological implications 267

Notes to Chapter 6 268

7 Current linguistic theory 274

7.1 Theory formation 274

7.1.1 Linguistic theory and linguistic practice 274

7.1.2 Rival theories 277

7.2 Transformational-generative linguistics(TG) 280

7.2.1 General considerations 280

7.2.2 Early formulation:Syntactic structures 280

7.2.3 Later developments:Aspects of the theory of syntax and after 287

7.2.4 Government and binding 292

7.3 Other current theories 297

7.3.1 General context 297

7.3.2 Generalized phrase structure grammar(GPSG) 298

7.3.3 Relational and functional grammar 300

7.3.4 Dependency grammars 305

7.4 Earlier post-'structuralist'theories 307

7.4.1 General context 307

7.4.2 Tagmemics 308

7.4.3 M.A.K. Halliday:systemic grammar 311

7.4.4 Stratificational linguistics 318

7.5 Postscript 320

Bibliography for Chapter 7 324

Notes to Chapter 7 327

8 Linguistic comparison 334

8.1 Historically orientated comparison of languages(comparative and historical linguistics) 334

8.1.1 The material 334

8.1.2 The Great Vowel Shift in English 342

8.1.3 Semantic changes 343

8.1.4 The Indo-European family 345

8.1.5 Other language families 347

8.1.6 The representation of correspondences 350

8.1.7 The neogrammarian thesis 352

8.1.8 Loan words 354

8.1.9 Analogy 358

8.1.10 Sound change and generative grammar 360

8.1.11 Historical inferences 361

8.2 Typological comparison 367

8.2.1 General principles 367

8.2.2 Phonetic typology 369

8.2.3 Phonological typology 370

8.2.4 Grammatical typology 372

8.2.5 Linguistic typology and linguistic universals 373

8.2.6 Structural typology 376

8.2.7 Lexical typology 380

8.2.8 Historical change and linguistic typology 382

8.2.9 Summary 385

Bibliography for Chapter 8 386

Notes to Chapter 8 389

9 Wider perspectives 396

9.1 Linguistics,anthropology and sociology 396

9.1.1 Linguistics and anthropology 396

9.1.2 Linguistics and sociology:sociolinguistics 401

9.2 Linguistics and philosophy 404

9.3 Linguistics and psychology 408

9.4 Linguistics and language teaching:linguistics and communications engineering 412

9.4.1 Linguistics and language teaching 412

9.4.2 Linguistics and communications engineering 414

9.5 Linguistics and literature 416

9.6 Outline of the history of linguistic studies in Western Europe 423

Bibliography for Chapter 9 429

Notes to Chapter 9 432

Index 436

文库索引 446