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Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Linguistics 1

1.1.1 Definition of linguistics 1

Contents 1

1.1.2 Linguistics versus traditional grammar 2

1.1.3 Use of studying linguistics 3

1.1.4 Scope of linguistics 4

1.2 Language 8

1.2.1 Definition of language 8

1.2.2 Origin of language 9

1.2.3 Design features of language 10

1.2.4 Functions of language 13

1.3 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics 15

1.3.1 Descriiptive and prescriptive grammars 15

1.3.2 Synchronic and diachronic linguistics 15

1.3.4 Competence and performance 16

1.3.3 Langue and parole 16

1.3.5 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 17

1.3.6 Functionalism and formalism 18

Exercises and Discussion Questions 18

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 19

Supplementary Readings 20

Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language 25

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Phonetics 25

2.2.1 Articulators and their functions 26

2.2.2 Voiced and voiceless sounds 29

2.2.3 Nasal and oral sounds 30

2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds 31

2.2.4.1 English consonants 32

2.2.4.2 English vowels 34

2.2.5.2 Elision and assimilation 35

2.2.5 Variations of sounds 35

2.2.5.1 Liaison 35

2.3 Phonology 36

2.3.1 Phonemes:the phonological units of language 37

2.3.2 Minimal pairs and sets 38

2.3.3 Free variation 39

2.3.4 Distinctive features 39

2.3.5 Syllables and consonant clusters 40

2.3.6 Suprasemental features 43

2.3.6.1 Stress 43

2.3.6.2 Intonation 44

Exercises and Discussion Questions 45

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 46

Supplementary Readings 47

3.1 Introduction 52

3.2 Morphemes 52

Chapter 3 Morphology 52

3.2.1 Free morphemes 53

3.2.2 Bound morphemes 53

3.3 Morphs and Allomorphs 56

3.4 Types of Word Formation 57

3.4.1 Compounding 57

3.4.2 Derivation 58

3.4.3 Other ways of word formation 60

3.4.3.1 Conversion 60

3.4.3.2 Backformation 60

3.4.3.3 Clipping 61

3.4.3.4 Blending 61

3.4.3.5 Acronym 61

3.4.3.6 Initialism 62

Exercises and Discussion Questions 63

Supplementary Readings 65

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 65

Chapter 4 Syntax 70

4.1 Introduction 70

4.2 Word classes 71

4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 73

4.4 The Descriptive Approach 74

4.4.1 Structural analysis 74

4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 75

4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 77

4.6 Transformational Grammar 83

4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar 87

Exercises and Discussion Questions 95

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 96

Supplementary Readings 97

5.1 Definition of Semantics 103

Chapter 5 Semantics 103

5.2 Approaches to Meaning 104

5.2.1 Meaning as naming 105

5.2.2 Meaning as concept 106

5.2.3 Meaning as behavior 107

5.2.4 Meaning as context 107

5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions 109

5.3 Word Meaning 110

5.3.1 Sense and reference 110

5.3.2 Seven types of meaning 111

5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning 111

5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning 112

5.3.2.3 Social meaning 113

5.3.2.4 Affective meaning 114

5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning 115

5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning 115

5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning 116

5.3.3 Semantic fields 117

5.3.4 Componential analysis 118

5.3.5 Semantic relationships between words 120

5.3.5.1 Homonymy 121

5.3.5.2 Polysemy 121

5.3.5.3 Homophony 122

5.3.5.4 Synonymy 122

5.3.5.5 Antonymy 123

5.3.5.6 Hyponymy 124

5.3.5.7 Meronymy 125

5.4 Sentence Meaning 126

5.4.1 Sentence and proposition 126

5.4.2 Semantic roles 127

5.4.3.1 Entailment 131

5.4.3.2 Presupposition 131

5.4.3 Semantic relationships between sentences 131

5.4.3.3 Synonymy 132

5.4.3.4 Inconsistency 132

5.4.3.5 Implicature 132

Exercises and Discussion Questions 133

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 135

Supplementary Readings 136

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 141

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 Micropragmatics 143

6.2.1 Reference 143

6.2.2 Deixis 144

6.2.3 Anaphora 145

6.2.4 Presupposition 146

6.3 Macropragmatics 147

6.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts 148

6.3.1 Speech act theory 148

6.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary acts 150

6.3.1.3 Indirect speech acts 151

6.3.2 The Cooperative Principle 153

6.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims 153

6.3.2.2 Conversational implicatures 154

6.3.3 The Politeness Principle 157

Exercises and Discussion Questions 161

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 162

Supplementary Readings 163

Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis 167

7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis 167

7.2 Information Structure 169

7.2.1 Given and new information 169

7.2.2 Topic and comment 170

7.2.3 Contrast 172

7.3 Cohesion and Coherence 173

7.3.1 Cohesion 175

7.3.1.1 Reference 175

7.3.1.2 Substitution 176

7.3.1.3 Ellipsis 176

7.3.1.4 Conjunction 177

7.3.1.5 Lexical cohesion 177

7.3.2 Coherence 178

7.4 Discourse Markers 180

7.5 Conversational Analysis 182

7.5.1 Adjacency pairs 183

7.5.2 Preference structure 184

7.5.3 Presequences 186

7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis 187

Exercises and Discussion Questions 189

Supplementary Readings 190

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 190

Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 196

8.1 Introduction 196

8.2 Language Varieties 197

8.2.1 Standard language 197

8.2.2 Dialects 198

8.2.3 Registers 200

8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles 202

8.2.5 Language planning 203

8.3 Choosing a Code 204

8.3.1 Diglossia 204

8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism 205

8.3.3 Code-switching 206

8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms 207

8.5 Language and Gender 210

Exercises and Discussion Questions 212

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 213

Supplementary Readings 214

Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 220

9.1 Introduction 220

9.2 Language Acquisition 221

9.3 Language Production 223

9.3.1 Conceptualization 224

9.3.2 Formulation 224

9.3.3 Articulation 226

9.3.4 Self-regulation 226

9.4 Language Comprehension 227

9.4.1 Sound comprehension 228

9.4.2 Word comprehension 228

9.4.3 Sentence comprehension 230

9.4.4 Text comprehension 231

9.5 Language and Thought 232

9.5.1 Language determines thought 233

9.5.2 Thought determines language 235

Exercises and Discussion Questions 237

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 238

Supplementary Readings 239

Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics 243

10.1 Introduction 243

10.2 Categorization and Categories 244

10.2.1 The classical theory 244

10.2.2 Prototype theory 246

10.2.3 Levels of categorization 248

10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy 249

10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor 249

10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy 250

10.4.1 Iconicity of order 254

10.4 Iconicity 254

10.4.2 Iconicity of distance 255

10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity 256

10.5 Grammaticalization 257

Exercises and Discussion Questions 259

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 260

Supplementary Readings 261

Chapter 11 Language Acquisition 267

11.1 First Language Acquisition 267

11.1.1 The behaviorist approach 268

11.1.2 The innateness approach 269

11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language 270

11.2 Second Language Acquisition 273

11.2.1 Contrastive analysis 274

11.2.2 Error analysis 274

11.2.3 Interlanguage 276

11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition 277

11.3.1 Language aptitude 277

11.3.2 Cognitive style:field dependence and field independence 278

11.3.3 Personality traits 280

11.3.4 Learning strategies 281

11.4 Instruction and L2 Acquisition 284

11.4.1 Form-focused instruction 284

11.4.2 Learner-instruction matching 285

11.4.3 Strategy training 286

Exercises and Discussion Questions 287

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 288

Supplementary Readings 289

Chapter 12 Applied Linguistics 296

12.1 Introduction 296

12.2 Language Teaching 297

12.2.1 The grammar-translation method 298

12.2.2 The direct method 299

12.2.3 The audiolingual method 300

12.2.4 Situational language teaching 302

12.2.5 Functional language teaching 303

12.2.6 Communicative language teaching 305

12.2.7 Other approaches 308

12.3 Testing 308

12.3.1 The main types of language tests 308

12.3.2 Principles of language testing 313

12.4 Summary 318

Exercises and Discussion Questions 319

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 319

Supplementary Readings 321

Glossary 326

Index 341