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CONTENTS 1

CHAPTER Ⅰ　THE SCIENCE OF EXPRESSION 1

1.10．Something to Say and Way of Saying It 1

1.11．All Grammatical Forms and Constructions are Ways of Expressing Notions 2

1.20．Grammar as the Science of Expression 3

1.30．National Differences in Notions and Their Expressions 5

1.31．National Differences in Notions 5

1.40．Formal and Notional Grouping of Grammatical Facts 6

1.32．English Grammar Should Teach English Ways of Think－ing and Expression 6

1.41．Outline of the Course 8

1.42．Living Grammar 10

CHAPTER Ⅱ　PARTS OF SPEECH AND CHANGE OF FUNCTION 11

2.10．The Eight Parts of Speech or Word-Classes 11

2.11．Definitions 12

2.12．Grammatical Function 14

2.13．Chinese and English Compared 15

2.14．Sense of Function 16

2.15．Sense of Thing 17

2.16．Sense of Action and Quality 18

2.17．Sense of Aspect and Manner 20

2.18．Sense of Prepositional Force 22

2.20．Change of Function 23

2.21．Nouns Used as Adjectives 24

2.22．Nouns Changed into Adjectives 26

2.23．Nouns Used as Verbs 27

2.30．Verbs Used as Nouns 27

2.31．Verbs Changed into Nouns 29

2.32．Pairs of Nouns and Verbs 30

2.33．Verbs Used as Adjectives：Participles 32

2.34．Spelling of Participles 34

2.35 Verbs Changed into Adjectives 35

2.40．Adjectives Changed into Nouns 36

2.41．The Poor，the Dead,etc． 37

2.42．Adjectives Changed into Adverbs：The Ending－ly 38

2.43．Knowingly，Decidedly，etc 40

2.50．Prepositions Used as Adjectives 40

2.51．Adverbs and Prepositions Used as Nouns 42

2.52．Adverbs，Prepositions and Conjunctions 42

2.60．Some Interesting Compound-Words 43

CHAPTER Ⅲ SENTENCE MOODS 46

3.10．What is a Sentence？ 46

3.11．Importance of Finite Verb 48

3.20．Sentence，Phrase and Clause：Subject，Predicate and Principal Verb 49

3.21．Direct and Indirect Objects 49

3.22．Sentence Structure：Modifiers and Conjunctions 50

3.23．Phrase and Clause 51

3.30．Sentence Moods 52

3.31．Chinese and English Compared：Chinese Modal Particles 53

3.40．Affirmation：I Do，I Am 54

3.41．Can，Will，Have，Must，etc 55

3.42．Affirmative Replies 56

3.43．Qualified Assertion 56

3.44．Emphatic Assertion 57

3.45．English Reticence and Double Negatives 59

3.46．Affirmation by a Retort Question 60

3.50．Negation 61

3.51．Aren't，Isn't，Mustn't，etc． 62

3.52．No，Not a，Not Any，Nothing，etc． 64

3.54．No in Negative Answers 65

3.53．Few，a Few，Little，a Little 65

3.55．Emphatic Negation 66

3.56．“I Ain't Got Nothillg” 67

3.57．Conditional Negation 68

3.60．Interrogation 69

3.61．Will You？Wont't You？ 70

3.62．The Tag-Question 71

3.63．Tonal Interrogation and the Questioning Tone 72

3.64．The Indirect Question and Noun Clauses 73

3.71．Command，Request，Suggestion，etc． 75

3.70．The Potential Moods 75

3.72．Shall and Will 77

3.73．Hope and Wish 78

3.74．Permission，Prohibition，Obligation，etc． 80

3.75．Conjecture and Possibility 81

3.76．Pure Supposition：Would,Should,Could,Might 83

3.77．The Subjunctive Clause 85

3.80．Emotional Utterances 86

3.81．Swear-Words 88

4.10．Classes of Things 90

CHAPTER Ⅳ PERSONS，THINGS AND THEIR GENDER 90

4.20．Process and Result 91

4.21．Process-Words Denoting Results 92

4.30．Abstract and Contrete Nouns 93

4.31．Abstract-Words with Concrete Meaning 95

4.32．A Piece of Folly，a Fit of Anger，etc． 96

4.40．Common and Proper Nouns 97

4.41．Proper Nouns and Capital Letters 98

4.51．Mass-Words 99

4.50．Collectives and Mass-Words：Collectives or Group-Names 99

4.60．Things，Persons and Personification：Things and Persons 100

4.61．Who，Which and That 101

4.62．Whose and Of Which 102

4.63．Personification 103

4.70．Sex and Gender 105

4.71．Masculine，Feminine，Common and Neuter Genders 106

4.72．Animals and Persons of Different Sex 107

CHAPTER Ⅴ NUMBER AND QUANTITY 109

5.10．The Notions of Number and Quantity 109

5.11．Mass-Words：Grain of Sand,Bushel of Rice,etc． 110

5.12．Abstract Nouns：Piece of Luck 112

5.20．Singular and Plural：The Plural Endings -s and -es 113

5.21．Boys，Ladies，Pianos，Potatoes 115

5.22．Irregular Pluals：Fish，Dozen，Alumni 116

5.23．Collectives：Government Have and Government Has 118

5.24．Psychological Intent：Three Weeks Is Heaps of Time 119

5.25．The Generic Singular 120

5.26．Natural Plurals 121

5.27．Differentiated Plurals 123

5.28．Some Special Cases：Sons－in-law，the Miss Rogers，etc． 124

5.30．Numerals：Numerals，Fractions and Multiples 126

5.31．Indefinite Number 129

5.40．Conflict of Number 131

5.41．Number in Verbs 133

CHAPTER Ⅵ WEIGHT，VALUE，SIZE，SHAPE AND POSITION 139

6.10．National Differences in These Categories 139

6.20．Expressions of Weight 139

6.30．Expressions of Value 140

6.40．Expressions of Size and Distance 143

6.50．Expressions of Shape：English Shape－Blindness 144

6.60．Expressions of Position 146

6.61．Peculiar Use of Prepositions 148

CHAPTER Ⅶ REPRESENTATION 150

7.10．Representation 150

7.20．Presonal Pronouns：Case and Person 151

7.21．Mine，Thine，etc 153

7.22．Influence of Modesty，Respect，Familiarity，etc 154

7.23．Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns 156

7.24．General Person：One,People，etc 158

7.30．Conflict of Person and Case：Conflict of Person 160

7.31．Conflict of Case：Who，Whom，Whoever,Whomever 162

7.40．Thing－Pronouns 165

7.41．Some，Any，None 166

7.42．What 167

7.43．One，Thing，Affair，Something，etc 167

7.44．That 169

7.45．It 170

7.50．Metaphors：Metaphors and Figurative Expressions 173

7.60．Indirect Statements：Direct and Indirect Statements 177

7.61．Tense of Dependent Clauses 179

7.70．Representation by Omission 181

CHAPTER Ⅷ DETERMINATION 186

8.10．Representation，Determination and Modification 186

8.11．Classes of Pronouns 187

8.20．Distinction：This，That，Same，Other 188

8.30．Possessive Pronouns and Nouns 190

8.40．Apposition：Apposition and Example 192

8.50．Sequence：the Ordinals 194

8.60．Alternation and Distribution：Either，Each，etc 195

8.70．Definite and Indefinite：A，An and The 197

8.71．Generalization：A Cat，The Cat，Cats 199

8.72．Special Uses of A and The 201

8.73．Omission of A and The 203

8.80．Indetermination：Whatever，Whoever，etc 207

CHAPTER Ⅸ MODIFICATION 210

9.10．Modification：Its Importance 210

9.11．Word-Classes and Word-Ranks 212

9.20．Relationship between Modified and Modifier 214

9.21．The Use and Omission of Hyphens 217

9.22．Relationship between Modifiers 220

9.23．Co-ordinate Modifiers 220

9.24．Subordinate Modifiers 223

9.25．Shifted Ranks 226

9.26．Transformed Phrases as Modifiers 230

9.27．Nouns and Verbs as Modifiers 232

9.30．Phrase and Clause Modifiers 235

9.31．The Infinitve Phrase as Modifier 235

9.32．The Split Infinitive，etc． 239

9.33．Need to，Dare to 241

9.40．The Participial Phrase as Modifier 243

9.41．Misconnected Participles 246

9.42．The Absolute Participial Phrase 247

9.50．The Prepositional Phrase 249

9.51．Prepositions for Brevity 250

9.52．Prepositions at End 251

9.53．But，Than 252

9.54．Some Special Uses of English Prepositons 253

9.60．The Relative Clause 255

9.61．That as a Defining Relative Pronoun 256

9.62．Which as a Commentative Relative Pronoun 257

9.63．Which Modifying Statements 259

9.64．In Which，from Whom，etc 259

9.65．Which...It，Which...Them，etc 261

9.66．That...to，That...for，etc 261

9.67．That Used for in Which，for Which，etc 262

9.68．That Dropped 262

9.691．As as a Relative Pronoun 263

9.70．Relative Adverbs When，Where and Why 264

9.692．But as a Relative Pronoun 264

9.71．When Called,When Resting 266

9.80．Phrase and Clause Modifiers Summarized 267

9.81．Post－Nominal Position of Modifiers 268

9.82．Economy in Phrase and Clause Modifiers 269

9.83．The Nominal Phrase 270

9.84．Joining of Phrases 270

9.90．The Predicate Complements 271

9.91．“I Made Him Go” 273

13.60．Auxiliaries：Might，Could,Would,Should and Ought 274

10.10．Degrees of Comparison：Their Relative Nature 275

CHAPTER Ⅹ COMPARISON AND DEGREE 275

10.11．The“Three Degrees of Comparison” 276

10.12．More Better，Next Best，etc 278

10.13．Superiority，Equality and Inferiority 279

10.14．Implied Comparison 280

10.15．Words That Cannot Be Compared 281

10.16．Weakened Superlatives 282

10.20．Comparison with a Standard 284

10.30．Degree of Difference 288

10.31．Indeterminate Degrees 288

10.32．Limitation 294

10.33．Cumulative Degrees 296

10.40．Choice and Comparison 297

10.50．Comparison and Case 299

CHAPTER Ⅺ　ASPECTS OF ACTION 302

11.01．The Study of the Verb 302

11.02．What is an Aspect？ 303

11.03．The English Verbal Aspects 305

11.10．Action and Condition 305

11.11．Being and Doing 308

11.20．Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 309

11.21．Intransitive Verbs and Prepositions 311

11.22．Intransitive Verbs Used Transitively 315

11.30．Active and Passive：The Term“Voice” 317

11.31．Formation of the Passive 317

11.32．Use of the Passive 319

11.33．Active and Passive Nouns 320

11.34．Active and Passive Adjectives 321

11.35．False Active 322

11.40．Complete and Incomplete Action 323

11.41．Present Perfect and Adverbs of Time 324

11.42．Use of the Perfect 325

11.43．Incompletion：Use of the Progressive 330

11.44．Participles and the Conclusive Aspect 331

11.50．Beginning，Continuation and End 332

11.60．Durative and Punctual：Point of Time and Period of Time 334

11.61．Punctual and Durative Verbs 335

11.62．Duration in Prepositions 336

11.70．Habitual Action 337

11.80．Tentative Action 339

11.90．Miscellaneous Minor Aspects：Causative，Reiterative，Reflexive and Reciprocal 340

CHAPTER Ⅻ　SUBJECT AND OBJECT（TRANSITIVE ACTION） 342

12.10．Subject and Doer 342

12.11．Object and Party Affected 343

12.12．Grammatical Subjects and Objects 344

12.20．Kinds of Subject 345

12.21．It as Subject 345

12.22．There Is 347

12.30．Transitive Action and Objects：Transitive Action 348

12.31．Direct and Indirect Objects 349

12.40．Passive Subjects：Passive Verbs with Objects 350

12.41．Passive Intransitive Verbs 351

12.50．Impersonal Subjects 352

13.10．The Time Schene：Present，Past and Future 355

CHAPTER ⅩⅢ TIME OF ACTION 355

13.20．Present：What is Present？ 356

13.21．Habitual Action and Eternal Truths 357

13.30．Future：Expression of Future 358

13.31．Shall and Will 358

13.32．Chinese“Chiang”and“Yao” 360

13.33．May and Is to 361

13.34．Present Used for Future 362

13.41．Use of the Past 363

13.40．Past：Past Actions are Facts 363

13.42．Past Visualized：“Dramatic Present” 365

13.43．Tense in Dependent Clauses 366

13.50．Irregular Verbs 366

13.61．Expression of the Past with Auxiliaries 377

13.62．Declinable Substitutes for the Auxiliaries 378

13.70．Conjunctions Expressing Time 380

13.80．Adverbs of Time 382

13.90．Time in Nouns 383

14.11．Fact and Fancy 385

CHAPTER ⅩⅣ FACT AND FANCY 385

14.10．The Verbal Moods：Close Relation to Sentence Moods 385

14.12．Subjective and Objective Moods 386

14.20．The Subjunctive Mood：Shifting of Tense 386

14.21．General Supposition：If He Should Have，If He Have 388

14.22．Different Degrees of Supposition 390

14.23．If I Was，If I Were 392

14.30．The Potential Moods 392

15.10．Conjunctions and Logical Relationships 396

15.20．Simple，Compound and Complex Sentences 396

CHAPTER ⅩⅤ RELATIONSHIPS 396

15.30．Co－ordinate and Subordinate Clauses 399

15.40．Logical Relationships 401

15.41．Combination 401

15.42．Opposition 402

15.43．Selection and Substitution 403

15.44．Exclusion and Inclusion 404

15.45．Condition and Concession 405

15.46．Cause and Effect 406

15.47．Motive and Purpose 407

15.48．Comparison and Conformity 408

15.49．Time and Logical Relationships 410

15.50．Interrogative Adverbs and Pronouns 412

15.60．Punctuation：Logical and Phonetic Basis 412

15.61．The Comma 413

15.62．The Semi-Colon 415

15.63．The Colon 416

15.65．The Exclamation and Question Marks 417

15.66．Inverted Commas 417

15.64．The FullStop 417

15.67．The Dash and the Dotted Line 418

15.68．Parentheses and Brackets 420

15.70．Loose and Periodic Sentences：Loose and Periodic Sen-tence Structure 421

CHAPTER ⅩⅥ　ECONOMY OF EXPRESSION 423

16.10．Ease and Economy 423

16.20．Shifting of Function 423

16.21．Change of Clauses into Phrases 424

16.30．Ellipsis：Dropping of Auxiliary Words 426

16.31．Dropping of Principal Words 426

16.22．Change of Phrase Modfifiers into Word-Modifiers 426

16.32．Ellipsis in Dependent Clauses 427

16.33．And that 428

16.40．Abbreviations and Contractions：Contractions 428

16.41．Abbreviations 429

16.42．Monosyllabism 430

16.50．Mottoes 432

16.60．Economy and Emotional Language 432

16.70．Economy and Business 432

SYNOPSIS OF FORMAL GRAMMAR 434

INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TERMS 444