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1 What is phonology?　 1

1.1　Concerns of phonology　 2

1.2　Phonetics-what is physical sound?　 4

1.3　The symbolic representation of speech　 14

Summary　 16

Exercises　 17

Notes to this chapter　 17

Suggestions for further reading　 17

2　Phonetic transcriptions　 19

2.1　Vowels:their symbols and properties　 20

2.2　Consonants:their symbols and properties　 26

2.3　IPA symbols　 34

2.4　Illustrations with English transcription　 36

Summary　 37

Exercises　 40

Notes to this chapter　 42

Suggestions for further reading　 42

3 Allophonic relations　 43

3.1　English consonantal allophones　 44

3.2　Allophony in other languages　 49

Summary　 61

Exercises　 61

Notes to this chapter　 66

Suggestions for further reading　 66

4　Underlying representations　 67

4.1　The importance of correct underlying forms　 68

4.2　Refining the concept of underlying form　 71

4.3　Finding the underlying form　 73

4.4　Practice at problem solving　 80

4.5　Underlying forms and sentence-level phonology　 82

4.6　Underlying forms and multiple columns in the paradigm　 85

Summary　 94

Exercises　 94

Notes to thischapter　 98

Suggestions for further reading　 98

5　Interacting processes　 99

5.1　Separating the effects of different rules 100

5.2　Different effects of rule ordering 112

Summary　 121

Exercises　 122

Notes to this chapter　 128

Suggestions for further reading　 128

6 Feature theory　 129

6.1 Scientific questions about speech sounds　 130

6.2 Distinctive feature theory　 135

6.3　Features and classes of segments　 150

6.4　Possible phonemes and rules-an answer　 154

6.5　The formulation of phonological rules　 157

6.6　Changing the theory　 160

Summary　 166

Exercises　 167

Notes to this chapter　 168

Suggestions for further reading　 168

7　Doing an analysis　 169

7.1　Yawelmani　 170

7.2　Hehe　 177

7.3　Icelandic　 185

7.4　Modern Hebrew　 191

7.5　Japanese　 197

Summary　 207

Exercises　 207

Notes to this chapter　 224

Suggestions for further reading　 224

8　Phonological typology and naturalness　 225

8.1 Inventories　 226

8.2　Segmental processes　 228

8.3　Prosodically based processes　 244

8.4　Why do things happen?　 250

Summary　 255

Notes to this chapter　 256

Suggestions for further reading　 256

9 Abstractness and psychological reality　 257

9.1　Why limit abstractness?　 258

9.2　Independent evidence:historical restructuring　 273

9.3　Well-motivated abstractness　 277

9.4　Grammar-external evidence for abstractness　 287

9.5　How abstract is phonology?　 297

Exercises　 298

Notes to this chapter　 300

Suggestions for further reading　 300

10 Nonlinear representations　 301

10.1　The autosegmental theory of tone:the beginnings of change　 302

10.2　Extension to the segmental domain　 321

Summary　 329

Exercises　 329

Notes to this chapter　 331

Suggestions for further reading　 331

Glossary　 333

References　 339

Index of languages　 345

General Index　 347