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Chapter 1　Invitations to Linguistics 1

1.1 Why Study Language? 1

1.2 What Is Language? 2

1.3 Design Features ofLanguage 3

1.3.1 Arbitrariness 4

1.3.2 Duality 5

1.3.3 Creativity 6

1.3.4 Displacement 7

1.4 Origin of Language 8

1.5 Functions of Language 9

1.5.1 Informative 10

1.5.2 Interpersonal Function 10

1.5.3 Performative 11

1.5.4 Emotive Function 11

1.5.5 Phatic Communion 12

1.5.6 Recreational Function 13

1.5.7 Metalingual Function 13

1.6 What Is Linguistics? 14

1.7 Main Branches ofLinguistics 15

1.7.1 Phonetics 15

1.7.2 Phonology 15

1.7.3 Morphology 16

1.7.4 Syntax 16

1.7.5 Semantics 17

1.7.6 Pragmatics 17

1.8 Macrolinguistics 17

1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 18

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 18

1.8.3 Anthropological Linguistics 18

1.8.4 Computational Linguistics 19

1.9 Important Distinctions in Linguistics 19

1.9.1 Descriptive vs.Prescriptive 19

1.9.2 Synchronic vs.Diachronic 20

1.9.3 Langue & Parole 21

1.9.4 Competence and Performance 21

Further Reading 22

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 24

2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made? 25

2.1.1 Speech Organs 25

2.1.2 The IPA 27

2.2 Consonants and Vowels 29

2.2.1 Consonants 29

2.2.2 Vowels 33

2.2.3 The Sounds of English 34

2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology 37

2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions 37

2.3.2 Phonemes 38

2.3.3 Allophones 40

2.4 Phonological Processes,Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features 42

2.4.1 Assimilation 42

2.4.2 Epenthesis,Rule Ordering and the Elsewhere Condition 44

2.4.3 Distinctive Features 47

2.5 Suprasegmentals 49

2.5.1 The Syllable Structure 49

2.5.2 Stress 51

2.5.3 Intonation 52

2.5.4 Tone 52

Further Reading 53

Chapter 3 Lexicon 55

3.1 What Is Word? 55

3.1.1 Three Senses of"WORD" 55

3.1.2 Identification of Words 57

3.1.3 Classification of Words 58

3.2 The Formation of Word 61

3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology 61

3.2.2 Types of Morphemes 62

3.2.3 Inflection and Word Formation 64

3.2.4 Sememe vs.Morpheme,and Phoneme vs.Morpheme 68

3.3 Lexical Change 72

3.3.1 Lexical Change Proper 73

3.3.2 Morpho-syntactical Change 77

3.3.3 Semantic Change 78

3.3.4 Phonological Change 80

3.3.5 Orthographic Change 82

Further Reading 82

Chapter 4 From Word to Text 84

4.1 Syntactic Relations 84

4.1.1 Positional Relation 84

4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability 85

4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 86

4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents 86

4.2.1 Grammatical Construction 86

4.2.2 Immediate Constituents 87

4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions 89

4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination 90

4.3 Syntactic Function 92

4.3.1 Subject 92

4.3.2 Predicate 94

4.3.3 Object 95

4.3.4 The Relation between Classes and Functions 95

4.4 Category 96

4.4.1 Number 96

4.4.2 Gender 97

4.4.3 Case 97

4.4.4 Agreement 98

4.5 Phrase,Clause and Sentence 99

4.5.1 Phrase 99

4.5.2 Clause 99

4.5.3 Sentence 100

4.6 Recursiveness 101

4.6.1 Conjoining 102

4.6.2 Embedding 102

4.7 Beyond the Sentence 102

4.7.1 Sentential Connection 103

4.7.2 Cohesion 103

Further Reading 103

Chapter 5 Meaning 105

5.1 Meanings of"MEANING" 105

5.2 The Referential Theory 107

5.3 Sense Relations 109

5.3.1 Synonymy 109

5.3.2 Antonymy 110

5.3.3 Hyponymy 113

5.4 Componential Analysis 114

5.5 Sentence Meaning 117

5.5.1 An Integrated Theory 118

5.5.2 Logical Semantics 120

Further Reading 126

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition 128

6.1 What Is Cognition? 128

6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics? 130

6.2.1 Language Acquisition 131

6.2.2 Language Comprehension 134

6.2.3 Language Production 139

6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics? 142

6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations 143

6.3.2 Categorization 145

6.3.3 Image Schemas 147

6.3.4 Metaphor 148

6.3.5 Metonymy 151

6.3.6 Blending Theory 155

Further Reading 158

Chapter 7 Language,Culture,and Society 159

7.1 Language and Culture 159

7.1.1 How Does Language Relate to Culture? 160

7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 163

7.1.3 Case Studies 167

7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study? 168

7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom 169

7.2 Language and Society 170

7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society? 170

7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective 170

7.2.3 What Should We Know More about Sociolinguistics? 173

7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get from Sociolinguistics? 174

7.3 Cross-cultural Communication 176

7.3.1 What Should We Know All about Cross-cultural Communication? 176

7.3.2 Case Studies 177

7.4 Summary 182

Further Reading 183

Chapter 8 Language in Use 185

8.1 Speech Act Thcory 186

8.1.1 Performatives and Constatives 186

8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 188

8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature 190

8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle 190

8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims 192

8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 195

8.3 Post-Gricean Developments 198

8.3.1 Relevance Theory 198

8.3.2 The Q-and R-principles 201

8.3.3 The Q-,I-and M-principles 206

Further Reading 209

Chapter 9 Language and Literature 211

9.1 Introduction 211

9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language 211

9.2.1 Foregrounding and the Grammatical Form 212

9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 213

9.2.3 The Analysis of Literary Language 215

9.3 The Language in Poetry 216

9.3.1 Sound Patterning 216

9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning 217

9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning 218

9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound 220

9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre 221

9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry? 221

9.4 The Language in Fiction 223

9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View 223

9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation 225

9.4.3 Prose Style 229

9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction? 230

9.5 The Language in Drama 230

9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama? 231

9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language 232

9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts? 236

9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature 236

9.6.1 Theoretical Background 236

9.6.2 An Example of Cognitive Analysis 237

Further Reading 240

Chapter 10 Language and Computer 242

10.0 Introduction 242

10.1 Computer-assisted Language Learning(CALL) 242

10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs.CALL 242

10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development 244

10.1.3 Technology 245

10.2 Machine Translation 247

10.2.1 History of Development 247

10.2.2 Research Methods 249

10.2.3 MT Quality 251

10.2.4 MT and the Internet 252

10.2.5 Speech Translation 252

10.2.6 MT and Human Translation 253

10.3 Corpus Linguistics 254

10.3.1 Definition 254

10.3.2 Criticisms and the Revival of Corpus Linguistics 255

10.3.3 Concordance 255

10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation 256

10.3.5 The Roles of Corpus Data 257

10.4 Computer Mediated Communication 259

10.4.1 Mail and News 260

10.4.2 PowerPoint 261

10.4.3 Blog 262

10.4.4 Chatroom 263

10.4.5 Emoticons or Smileys 264

Further Reading 265

Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 266

11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 266

11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning 267

11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning 268

11.2.2 Input and Language Learning 270

11.2.3 Interlanguage in Language Learning 271

11.3 Linguistics and Language Teaching 272

11.3.1 The Discourse-based View of Language Teaching 272

11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 274

11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design 275

11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms:Syllabus and Curriculum 276

11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design 277

11.4.3 Types of Syllabus 278

11.4.4 Components of Syllabus 285

11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design 286

11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis 287

11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis(CA) 287

11.5.2 Error Analysis(EA) 289

11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching 290

11.6.1 Types of Corpora 291

11.6.2 What Uses Can We Make of Corpora? 291

11.7 Summary 292

Further Reading 293

Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 294

12.0 Introduction 294

12.1 The Prague School 296

12.1.1 Introduction 296

12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions 297

12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP) 298

12.2 The London School 301

12.2.1 Malinowski's Theorics 302

12.2.2 Firth's Theories 303

12.2.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 306

12.3 American Structuralism 317

12.3.1 Early Period:Boas and Sapir 317

12.3.2 Bloomfield's Theory 320

12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics 322

12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar 326

12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis 326

12.4.2 What Is a Generative Grammar? 327

12.4.3 The Classical Theory 328

12.4.4 The Standard Theory 332

12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory 334

12.4.6 Later Theories 337

12.4.7 Main Features of TG Grammar 338

12.5 Revisionists or Rebels? 339

12.5.1 Case Grammar 339

12.5.2 Generative Semantics 340

Further Reading 342

Bibliography 345

Glossary and Index 359