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Contents 1

PREFACE xiii 1

Part One 1

1 IMAGES AND DIGITAL PROCESSING 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Elements of Digital Image Processing 2

1.3 Philosophical Considerations 7

1.4 Digital Image Processing in Practice 10

Problems 11

References 11

2 DIGTIZING IMAGES 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Characteristics of an Image Digitizer 14

2.3 Types of Image Digitizers 15

2.4 Image-Digitizing Components 16

2.5 Electronic Image Tube Cameras 21

2.6 Solid-State Cameras 24

2.7 Film Scanning 28

2.8 Summary of Important Points 33

Problems 34

Projects 35

References 35

3 DIGITAL IMAGE DISPLAY 37

3.1 Introduction 37

3.2 Display Characteristics 39

3.3 Volatile Displays 49

3.4 Permanent Displays 49

3.5 Summary of Important Points 52

References 53

Problems 53

Projects 53

4 IMAGE-PROCESSING SOFTWARE 55

4.1 Introduction 55

4.2 Image-Processing Systems 56

4.3 The User Interface 57

4.4 The Software Development Process 61

4.5 Summary of Important Points 68

Problems 68

Projects 69

References 69

5 THE GRAY-LEVEL HISTOGRAM 71

5.1 Introduction 71

5.2 Uses of the Histogram 75

5.3 Relationship Between Histogram and Image 77

5.4 Summary of Important Points 80

Problems 80

Projects 80

References 81

6 POINT OPERATIONS 83

6.1 Introduction 83

6.2 Point Operations and the Histogram 86

6.3 Applications of Point Operations 91

6.4 Summary of Important Points 96

Problems 97

Projects 99

7 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS 101

7.1 Introduction 101

7.2 Algebraic Operations and the Histogram 102

7.3 Applications of Algebraic Operations 106

Problems 112

7.4 Summary of Important Points 112

Projects 113

8 GEOMETRIC OPERATIONS 115

8.1 Introduction 115

8.2 Gray-Level Interpolation 117

8.3 The Spatial Transformation 120

8.4 Applications of Geometric Operations 125

8.5 Summary of Important Points 137

Problems 137

Projects 139

References 140

9 LINEAR SYSTEM THEORY 143

9.1 Introduction 143

Par Two 143

9.2 Harmonic Signals and Complex Signal Analysis 145

9.3 The Convolution Operation 148

9.4 Some Useful Functions 158

9.5 Convolution Filtering 163

9.6 Conclusion 166

9.7 Summary of Important Points 167

Problems 167

Projects 168

References 169

10 THE FOURIER TRANSFORM 171

10.1 Introduction 171

10.2 Properties of the Fourier Transform 178

10.3 Linear Systems and the Fourier Transform 186

10.4 The Fourier Transform in Two Dimensions 193

10.5 Correlation and the Power Spectrum 201

10.7 Summary of Important Points 203

10.6 Summary of Fourier Transform Properties 203

Problems 205

Projects 206

References 206

11 FILTER DESIGN 207

11.1 Introduction 207

11.2 Lowpass Filters 207

11.3 Bandpass and Bandstop Filters 209

11.4 High-Frequency Enhancement Filters 212

11.5 Optimal Linear Filter Design 216

11.6 Order Statistic Filters 247

11.7 Summary of Important Points 250

Problems 250

References 251

Projects 251

12 PROCESSING SAMPLED DATA 253

12.1 Introduction 253

12.2 Sampling and Interpolation 253

12.3 Computing Spectra 262

12.4 Aliasing 264

12.5 Truncation 266

12.6 Digital Processing 269

12.7 Controlling Aliasing Error 273

12.8 Digitally Implemented Linear Filtering 275

12.9 Summary of Important Points 277

Problems 277

Projects 278

References 279

13.1 Introduction 281

13 DISCRETE IMAGE TRANSFORMS 281

13.2 Linear Transformations 282

13.3 Basis Functions and Basis Images 285

13.4 Sinusoidal Transforms 286

13.5 Rectangular Wave Transforms 290

13.6 Eigenvector-Based Transforms 294

13.7 Transform Domain Filtering 299

13.8 Summary of Important Points 300

Problems 301

Projects 301

References 301

14 WAVELET TRANSFORMS 303

14.1 Introduction 303

14.2 The Continuous Wavelet Transform 308

14.3 The Wavelet Series Expansion 312

14.4 The Discrete Wavelet Transfom 314

14.5 Wavelet Selection 343

14.6 Applications 345

14.7 Summary of Important Points 346

Problems 347

Projects 348

References 348

15 OPTICS AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS 351

15.1 Introduction 351

15.2 Optics and Imaging Systems 353

15.3 Diffraction-Limited Optical Systems 357

15.4 Imaging System Aberrations 366

15.5 Imaging System Resolution 368

15.6 The Analysis of Complete Systems 371

15.7 Examples 377

15.8 Summary of Important Points 381

Problems 383

Projects 385

References 385

Part Three 387

16 IMAGE RESTORATION 387

16.1 Introduction 387

16.2 Classical Restoration Filters 388

16.3 Linear Algebraic Restoration 393

16.4 Restoration of Less Restricted Degradations 397

16.5 Superresolution 403

16.6 System Identification 408

16.7 Noise Modeling 414

16.8 Implementation 416

16.9 Summary of Important Points 425

Problems 426

Projects 428

References 428

17 IMAGE COMPRESSION 431

17.1 Introduction 431

17.2 Lossless Compression Techniques 432

17.3 Lossy Image Coding 435

17.4 Transform Image Coding 438

17.5 Image Compression Standards 441

17.6 Summary of Important Points 442

Problems 443

Projects 443

References 444

18.1 Introduction 447

18 PATTERN RECOGNITION:IMAGE SEGMENTATION 447

18.2 The Image Segmentation Process 450

18.3 Image Segmentation by Thresholding 452

18.4 Gradient-Based Segmentation Methods 460

18.5 Edge Detection and Linking 464

18.6 Region Growing 468

18.7 Binary Image Processing 470

18.8 Segmented Image Structure 478

18.9 Summary of Important Points 482

Problems 482

Projects 483

References 483

19.1 Introduction 487

19.2 Size Measurements 487

19 PATTERN RECOGNITION:OBJECT MEASUREMENT 487

19.3 Shape Analysis 492

19.4 Texture Analysis 499

19.5 Curve and Surface Fitting 501

19.6 Summary of Important Points 507

Problems 507

Projects 509

References 509

20 PATTERN RECOGNITION: 513

CLASSIFICATION AND ESTIMATION 513

20.1 Introduction 513

20.2 Classification 513

20.3 Feature Selection 515

20.4 Statistical Classification 518

20.5 Neural Networks 527

20.6 Proportion Estimation 538

20.7 Summary of Important Points 542

Problems 543

Projects 544

References 544

21 COLOR AND MULTISPECTRAL IMAGE PROCESSING 547

21.1 Introduction 547

21.2 Multispectral Image Analysis 548

21.3 Color Image Processing 548

21.4 Summary of Important Points 561

Problems 561

Projects 562

References 562

22 THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGE PROCESSING 563

22.1 Introduction 563

22.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging 566

22.3 Computerized Axial Tomography 582

22.4 Stereometry 585

22.5 Stereoscopic Image Display 590

22.6 Shaded Surface Display 593

22.7 Summary of Important Points 599

Problems 599

Projects 600

References 601

A1 GLOSSARY OF IMAGE PROCESSING TERMS 603

A2 BIBLIOGRAPHY 611

A2.1 Books 611

A2.2 Research Papers 621

A3 MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND 637

A3.1 Linear Algebra 637

A3.2 Set Theory 649

INDEX 651