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1 The Worlds of Database Systems 1

1.1 The Evolution of Database Systems 1

1.1.1 Early Database Management Systems 2

1.1.2 Relational Database Systems 4

1.1.3 Smaller and Smaller Systems 5

1.1.4 Bigger and Bigger Systems 5

1.2 The Architecture of a DBMS 7

1.2.1 Overview of DBMS Components 7

1.2.2 The Storage Manager 9

1.2.3 The Query Manager 10

1.2.4 The Transaction Manager 11

1.2.5 Client-Server Architecture 14

1.3 The Future of Database Systems 14

1.3.1 Types,Classes,and Objects 14

1.3.2 Constraints and Triggers 18

1.3.3 Multimedia Data 18

1.3.4 Data Integration 19

1.4 Outline of the Book 20

1.4.1 Design 21

1.4.2 Programming 21

1.5 Summary of Chapter1 22

1.6 References for Chapter 1 23

2 Database Modeling 25

2.1 Introduction to ODL 26

2.1.1 Object-Oriented Design 27

2.1.2 Interface Declarations 29

2.1.3 Attributes in ODL 29

2.1.4 Relationships in ODL 30

2.1.5 Inverse Relationships 31

2.1.6 Multiplicity of Relationships 33

2.1.7 Types in ODL 36

2.1.8 Exercises for Section2.1 38

2.2 Entity-Relationship Diagrams 40

2.2.1 Multiplicity of E/R Relationships 41

2.2.2 Multiway Relationships 42

2.2.3 Roles in Relationships 43

2.2.4 Attributes on Relationships 45

2.2.5 Converting Multiway Relationships to Binary 46

2.2.6 Exercises for Section2.2 48

2.3 Design Principles 50

2.3.1 Faithfulness 50

2.3.2 Avoiding Redundancy 51

2.3.3 Simplicity Counts 51

2.3.4 Picking the Right Kind of Element 52

2.3.5 Exercises for Section2.3 55

2.4 Subclasses 57

2.4.1 Subclasses in ODL 57

2.4.2 Multiple Inheritance in ODL 58

2.4.3 Subclasses in Entity-Relationship Diagrams 60

2.4.4 Inheritance in the E/R Model 60

2.4.5 Exercises for Section2.4 62

2.5 The Modeling of Constraints 63

2.5.1 Keys 64

2.5.2 Declaring Keys in ODL 66

2.5.3 Representing Keys in the E/R Model 67

2.5.4 Single-Value Constraints 67

2.5.5 Referential Integrity 68

2.5.6 Referential Integrity in E/R Diagrams 69

2.5.7 Other Kinds of Constraints 70

2.5.8 Exercises for Section2.5 71

2.6 Weak Entity Sets 72

2.6.1 Causes of Weak Entity Sets 72

2.6.2 Requirements for Weak Entity Sets 73

2.6.3 Weak Entity Set Notation 75

2.6.4 Exercises for Section 2.6 76

2.7 Models of Historical Interest 77

2.7.1 The Network Model 77

2.7.2 Representing Network Schemas 78

2.7.3 The Hierarchical Model 79

2.7.4 Exercises for Section 2.7 80

2.8 Summary of Chapter 2 82

2.9 References for Chapter 2 83

3 The Relational Data Model 85

3.1 Basics of the Relational Model 85

3.1.1 Attributes 86

3.1.2 Schemas 86

3.1.3 Tuples 87

3.1.4 Domains 87

3.1.5 Equivalent Representations of a Relation 88

3.1.6 Relation Instances 89

3.1.7 Exercises for Section 3.1 90

3.2 Form ODL Designs to Relational Designs 91

3.2.1 From ODL Attributes to Relational Attributes 92

3.2.2 Nonatomic Attributes in Classes 92

3.2.3 Representing Other Type Constructors 96

3.2.4 Representing Single-Valued Relationships 97

3.2.5 Representing Multivalued Relationships 99

3.2.6 What If There Is No Key? 100

3.2.7 Representing a Relationship and Its Inverse 101

3.2.8 Exercises for Section 3.2 102

3.3 From E/R Diagrams to Relational Designs 103

3.3.1 From Entity Sets to Relations 104

3.3.2 From E/R Relationships to Relations 106

3.3.3 Handling Weak Entity Sets 108

3.3.4 Exercises for Section 3.3 111

3.4 Converting Subclass Structures to Relations 112

3.4.1 Relational Representation of ODL Subclasses 113

3.4.2 Representing Isa in the Relational Model 114

3.4.3 Comparison of Approaches 115

3.4.4 Using Null Values to Combine Relations 115

3.4.5 Exercises for Section 3.4 116

3.5 Functional Dependencies 118

3.5.1 Definition of Functional Dependency 118

3.5.2 Keys of Relations 121

3.5.3 Superkeys 122

3.5.4 Discovering Keys for Relations 122

3.5.5 Keys for Relations Derived from ODL 124

3.5.6 Exercises for Section 3.5 126

3.6 Rules About Functional Dependencies 126

3.6.1The Splitting/Combining Rule 127

3.6.2 Trivial Dependencies 128

3.6.3 Computing the Closure of Attributes 129

3.6.4 The Transitive Rule 132

3.6.5 Closing Sets of Functional Dependencies 134

3.6.6 Exercises for Section 3.6 135

3.7 Design of Relational Database Schemas 137

3.7.1 Anomalies 138

3.7.2 Decomposing Relations 138

3.7.3 Boyce-Codd Normal Form 140

3.7.4 Decomposition into BCNF 142

3.7.5 Projecting Functional Dependencies 147

3.7.6 Recovering Information from a Decomposition 148

3.7.7 Third Normal Form 151

3.7.8 Exercises for Section 3.7 154

3.8 Multivalued Dependencies 155

3.8.1 Attribute Independence and Its Consequent Redundancy 156

3.8.2 Definition of Multivalued Dependencies 157

3.8.3 Reasoning About Multivalued Dependencies 159

3.8.4 Fourth Normal Form 161

3.8.5 Decomposition into Fourth Normal Form 162

3.8.6 Relationships Among Normal Forms 163

3.8.7 Exercises for Section 3.8 164

3.9 An Example Database Schema 166

3.10 Summary of Chapter 3 169

3.11 References for Chapter 3 171

4 Operations in the Relational Model 173

4.1 An Algebra of Relational Operations 173

4.1.1 Set Operations on Relations 174

4.1.2 Projection 176

4.1.3 Selection 177

4.1.4 Cartesian Product 178

4.1.5 Natural Joins 179

4.1.6 Theta-Joins 180

4.1.7 Combining Operations to Form Queries 182

4.1.8 Renaming 185

4.1.9 Dependent and Independent Operations 185

4.1.10 Exercises for Section 4.1 187

4.2 A Logic for Relations 194

4.2.1 Predicates and Atoms 194

4.2.2 Arithmetic Atoms 195

4.2.3 Datalog Rules and Queries 196

4.2.4 Meaning of Datalog Rules 197

4.2.5 Extensional and Intensional Predicates 200

4.2.6 Exercises for Section 4.2 200

4.3 From Relational Algebra to Datalog 201

4.3.1 Intersection 201

4.3.2 Union 201

4.3.3 Difference 202

4.3.4 Projection 202

4.3.5 Selection 203

4.3.6 Product 205

4.3.7 Joins 205

4.3.8 Simulating Multiple Operations with Datalog 207

4.3.9 Exercises for Section 4.3 208

4.4 Recursive Programming in Datalog 209

4.4.1 The Fixedpoint Operator 211

4.4.2 Computing the Least Fixedpoint 211

4.4.3 Fixedpoint Equations in Datalog 213

4.4.4 Negation in Recursive Rules 218

4.4.5 Exercises for Section 4.4 221

4.5 Constraints on Relations 223

4.5.1 Relational Algebra as a Constraint Language 223

4.5.2 Referential Integrity Constraints 224

4.5.3 Additional Constraint Examples 225

4.5.4 Exercises for Section 4.5 227

4.6 Relational Operations on Bags 229

4.6.1 Why Bags? 229

4.6.2 Union,Intersection,and Difference of Bags 230

4.6.3 Projection of Bags 232

4.6.4 Selection on Bags 233

4.6.5 Product of Bags 234

4.6.6 Joins of Bags 235

4.6.7 Datalog Rules Applied to Bags 235

4.6.8 Exercises for Section 4.6 237

4.7 Other Extensions to the Relational Model 238

4.7.1 Modifications 238

4.7.2 Aggregations 238

4.7.3 Views 239

4.7.4 Null Values 239

4.8 Summary of Chapter 4 240

4.9 References for Chapter 4 241

5 The Database Language SQL 243

5.1 Simple Queries in SQL 244

5.1.1 Projection in SQL 245

5.1.2 Selection in SQL 247

5.1.3 Comparison of Strings 248

5.1.4 Comparing Dates and Times 251

5.1.5 Ordering the Output 251

5.1.6 Exercises for Section 5.1 252

5.2 Queries Involving More than One Relation 254

5.2.1 Products and Joins in SQL 254

5.2.2 Disambiguating Attributes 255

5.2.3 Tuple Variables 256

5.2.4 Interpreting Multirelation Queries 257

5.2.5 Union,Intersection ,and Difference of Queries 260

5.2.6 Exercises for Section 5.2 262

5.3 Subqueries 263

5.3.1 Subqueries that Produce Scalar Values 264

5.3.2 Conditions Involving Relations 265

5.3.3 Conditions Involving Tuples 266

5.3.4 Correlated Subqueries 267

5.3.5 Exercises for Section 5.3 269

5.4 Duplicates 270

5.4.1 Eliminating Duplicates 271

5.4.2 Duplicates in Unions ,Intersections,and Differences 271

5.4.3 Exercises for Section 5.4 273

5.5 Aggregation 273

5.5.1 Aggregation Operators 273

5.5.2 Grouping 274

5.5.3 HAVING Clauses 276

5.5.4 Exercises for Section5.5 277

5.6 Database Modifications 279

5.6.1 Insertion 279

5.6.2 Deletion 281

5.6.3 Updates 283

5.6.4 Exercises for Section 5.6 284

5.7 Defining a Relation Schema in SQL 285

5.7.1 Data Types 286

5.7.2 Simple Table Declarations 286

5.7.3 Deleting Tables 287

5.7.4 Modifying Relation Schemas 288

5.7.5 Default Values 288

5.7.6 Domains 289

5.7.7 Indexes 290

5.7.8 Exercises for Section 5.7 292

5.8 View Definitions 294

5.8.1 Declaring Views 294

5.8.2 Querying Views 295

5.8.3 Renaming Attributes 297

5.8.4 Modifying Views 297

5.8.5 Interpreting Queries Involving Views 300

5.8.6 Exercises for Section 5.8 303

5.9 Null Values and Outerjoins 304

5.9.1 Operations on Nulls 304

5.9.2 The Truth-Value UNKNOWN 306

5.9.3 SQL2 Join Expressions 307

5.9.4 Natural Joins 309

5.9.5 Outerjoins 309

5.9.6 Exercises for Section 5.9 311

5.10 Recursion in SQL3 313

5.10.1 Defining IDB Relations in SQL3 313

5.10.2 Linear Recursion 316

5.10.3 Use of Views in With-Statements 317

5.10.4 Stratified Negation 318

5.10.5 Problematic Expressions in Recursive SQL3 319

5.10.6 Exercises for Section 5.10 322

5.11 Summary of Chapter 5 324

5.12 References for Chapter 5 326

6 Constraints and Triggers in SQL 327

6.1 Keys in SQL 328

6.1.1 Declaring Keys 328

6.1.2 Enforcing Key Constraints 330

6.1.3 Exercises for Section 6.1 331

6.2 Referential Integrity and Foreign Keys 331

6.2.1 Declaring Foreingn-Key Constraints 331

6.2.2 Maintaining Referential Integrity 333

6.2.3 Exercises for Section 6.2 335

6.3 Constraints on the Values of Attributes 336

6.3.1 Not-Null Constraints 337

6.3.2 Attribute-Based CHECK Constraints 337

6.3.3 Domain Constraints 339

6.3.4 Exercises for Section 6.3 340

6.4 Global Constraints 341

6.4.1 Tuple-Based CHECK Constraints 341

6.4.2 Assertions 342

6.4.3 Exercises for Section 6.4 346

6.5 Modification of Constraints 348

6.5.1 Giving Names to Constraints 348

6.5.2 Altering Constraints on Tables 349

6.5.3 Altering Domain Constraints 350

6.5.4 Altering Assertions 351

6.5.5 Exercises for Section 6.5 351

6.6 Triggers in SQL3 352

6.6.1 Triggers and Constraints 352

6.6.2 SQL 3 Triggers 353

6.6.3 Assertions in SQL3 356

6.6.4 Exercises for Section 6.6 357

6.7 Summary of Chapter 6 359

6.8 References for Chapter 6 360

7 System Aspects of SQL 361

7.1 SQL in a Programming Environment 361

7.1.1 The Impedance Mismatch Problem 362

7.1.2 The SQL/Host Language Interface 363

7.1.3 The DECLARE Section 364

7.1.4 Using Shared Variables 365

7.1.5 Single-Row Select Statements 366

7.1.6 Cursors 367

7.1.7 Modifications by Cursor 370

7.1.8 Cursor Options 370

7.1.9 Ordering Tuples for Fetching 371

7.1.10 Protecting Against Concurrent Updates 372

7.1.11 Scrolling Cursors 373

7.1.12 Dynamic SQL 374

7.1.13 Exercises for Section 7.1 375

7.2 Transactions in SQL 378

7.2.1 Serializability 378

7.2.2 Atomicity 380

7.2.3 Transactions 382

7.2.4 Read-Only Transactions 384

7.2.5 Dirty Reads 385

7.2.6 Other Isolation Levels 387

7.2.7 Exercises for Section 7.2 388

7.3 The SQL Environment 389

7.3.1 Environments 389

7.3.2 Schemas 391

7.3.3 Catalogs 392

7.3.4 Clients and Servers in the SQL Environment 392

7.3.5 Connections 393

7.3.6 Sessions 394

7.3.7 Modules 395

7.4 S?curity and User Authorization in SQL2 395

7.4.1 Privileges 396

7.4.2 Creating Privileges 397

7.4.3 The Privilege-Checking Process 398

7.4.4 Granting Privileges 399

7.4.5 Grant Diagrams 401

7.4.6 Revoking Privileges 402

7.4.7 Exercises for Section 7.4 407

7.5 Summary of Chapter 7 408

7.6 References for Chapter 7 410

8 Object-Oriented Query Languages 411

8.1 Query-Related Features of ODL 412

8.1.1 Operations on ODL Objects 412

8.1.2 Declaring Method Signatures in ODL 412

8.1.3 The Extent of a Class 415

8.1.4 Exercises for Section 8.1 415

8.2 Introduction to OQL 417

8.2.1 An Object-Oriented Movie Example 419

8.2.2 The OQL Type System 419

8.2.3 Path Expressions 420

8.2.4 Select-From-Where Expressions in OQL 421

8.2.5 Eliminating Duplicates 423

8.2.6 Complex Output Types 423

8.2.7 Subqueries 424

8.2.8 Ordering the Result 425

8.2.9 Exercises for Section 8.2 426

8.3 Additional Forms of OQL Expressions 427

8.3.1 Ouantifier Expressions 427

8.3.2 Aggregation Expressions 428

8.3.3 Group-By Expressions 428

8.3.4 HAVING Clauses 431

8.3.5 Set Operators 432

8.3.6 Exercises for Section 8.3 433

8.4 Object Assignment and Creation in OQL 434

8.4.1 Assigning Values to Host-Language Variables 434

8.4.2 Extracting Elements of Collections 434

8.4.3 Obtaining Each Member of a Collection 435

8.4.4 Creating New Objects 436

8.4.5 Exercises for Section 8.4 438

8.5 Tuple Objects in SQL3 439

8.5.1 Row Types 439

8.5.2 Declaring Relations with a Row Type 440

8.5.3 Accessing Components of a Row Type 441

8.5.4 References 441

8.5.5 Following References 442

8.5.6 Scopes of References 444

8.5.7 Object Identifiers as Values 445

8.5.8 Exercises for Section 8.5 448

8.6 Abstract Data Types in SQL3 449

8.6.1 Defining ADT s 450

8.6.2 Defining Methods for ADT s 453

8.6.3 External Functions 456

8.6.4 Exercises for Section 8.6 456

8.7 A Comparison of the ODL/OQL and SQL3 Approaches 458

8.8 Summary of Chapter 8 459

8.9 References for Chapter 8 460

Index 463