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1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems 1

1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications 1

1.2 Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S 4

1.3 Mobile Badio Systems Around the World 6

1.4 Examples of Mobile Radio Systems 9

1.4.1 Paging Systems 11

1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems 13

1.4.3 Cellular Telephone Systems 14

1.4.4 Comparison of Common Mobile Radio Systems 17

1.5 Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal Communications 20

1.6 Problems 22

2 The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals 25

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Frequency Reuse 26

2.3 Channel Assignment Strategies 30

2.4 Handoff Strategies 31

2.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs 34

2.4.2 Practical Handoff Considerations 34

2.5 Interference and System Capacity 37

2.5.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 37

2.5.2 Adjacent Channel Interference 41

2.5.3 Power Control for Reducing Interference 43

2.6 Trunking and Grade of Service 44

2.7 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems 54

2.7.1 Cell Splitting 54

2.7.2 Sectoring 57

2.7.3 A Novel Microcell Zone Concept 61

2.8 Summary 63

2.9 Problems 63

3 Mobile Radio Propagation:Large-Scale Path Loss 69

3.1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation 69

3.2 Free Space Propagation Model 70

3.3 Relating Power to Electric Field 74

3.4 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms 78

3.5 Reflection 78

3.5.1 Reflection from Dielectrics 79

3.5.2 Brewster Angle 84

3.5.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors 85

3.6 Ground Reflection(2-ray)Model 85

3.7 Diffraction 90

3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry 91

3.7.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model 94

3.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction 99

3.8 Scattering 100

3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model 101

3.9 Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models 102

3.9.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model 102

3.9.2 Log-normal Shadowing 104

3.9.3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area 106

3.10 Outdoor Propagation Models 110

3.10.1 Longley-Rice Model 110

3.10.2 Durkin s Model-A Case Study 111

3.10.3 Okumura Model 116

3.10.4 Hata Model 119

3.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model 120

3.10.6 Walfisch and Bertoni Model 120

3.10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model 121

3.11 Indoor Propagation Models 123

3.11.1 Partition Losses(same floor) 123

3.11.2 Partition Losses between Floors 126

3.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model 126

3.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model 128

3.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model 128

3.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings 131

3.13 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling 132

3.14 Problems 133

4 Mobile Radio Propagation:Small-Scale Fading and Multipath 139

4.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation 139

4.1.1 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading 140

4.1.2 Doppler Shift 141

4.2 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel 143

4.2.1 Relationship Between Bandwidth and Received Power 147

4.3 Small-Scale Multipath Measurements 153

4.3.1 Direct RF Pulse System 154

4.3.2 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding 155

4.3.3 Frequency Domain Channel Sounding 158

4.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels 159

4.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters 160

4.4.2 Coherence Bandwidth 163

4.4.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time 165

4.5 Types of Small-Scale Fading 167

4.5.1 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread 168

4.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread 170

4.6 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions 172

4.6.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution 172

4.6.2 Ricean Fading Distribution 174

4.7 Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels 176

4.7.1 Clarke s Model for Flat Fading 177

4.7.2 Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model 181

4.7.3 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics 185

4.7.4 Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model 188

4.7.5 Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model 188

4.7.6 SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor Statistical Models 189

4.8 Problems 192

5 Modulation TEchniques for Mobile Radio 197

5.1 Frequency Modulation vs.Amplitude Modulation 198

5.2 Amplitude Modulation 199

5.2.1 Single Sideband AM 202

5.2.2 Pilot Tone SSB 203

5.2.3 Demodulation of AM signals 206

5.3 Angle Modulation 206

5.3.1 Spectra and Bandwidth of FM Signals 208

5.3.2 FM Modulation Methods 209

5.3.3 FM Detection Techniques 211

5.3.4 Tradeoff Between SNR and Bandwidth in an FM Signal 219

5.4 Digital Modulation--an Overview 220

5.4.1 Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation 221

5.4.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals 224

5.4.3 Line Coding 225

5.5 Pulse Shaping Techniques 225

5.5.1 Nyquist Criterion for ISI Cancellation 227

5.5.2 Raised Cosine Rolloff Filter 229

5.5.3 Gausssian Pulse-shaping Filter 233

5.6 Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals 234

5.7 Linear Modulation Techniques 238

5.7.1 Binary Phase Shift Keying(BPSK) 238

5.7.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying(DPSK) 242

5.7.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK) 243

5.7.4 QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques 246

5.7.5 Offset QPSK 247

5.7.6 π/4QPSK 249

5.7.7 π/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques 249

5.7.8 π/4 QPSK Detection Techniques 252

5.8 Constant Envelope Modulation 254

5.8.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying 256

5.8.2 Minimum Shift Keying(MSK) 259

5.8.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying(GMSK) 261

5.9 Combined Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation Techniques 267

5.9.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying(MPSK) 267

5.9.2 M-ary Quadrature Amphtude Modulation(QAM) 270

5.9.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying(MFSK) 272

5.10 Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques 274

5.10.1 Pseudo-noise(PN) Sequenes 275

5.10.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrom(DS-SS) 276

5.10.3 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum(FH-SS) 278

5.10.4 Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Speetrum 280

5.10.5 Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 283

5.11 Modulation Performance in Fading and Mulitpath Channels 284

5.11.1 Performance of Digital Modulation in Slow,Flat Fading Channels 285

5.11.2 Digital Modulation in Frequency Selective Mobile Channels 289

5.11.3 Performance of π/4 DQPSK in Fading and Interterence 290

5.12 Problems 294

6 Equalization,Diversity,and Channel Coding 299

6.1 Introduction 299

6.2 Fundamentals of Equalization 300

6.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer 303

6.4 Equalizers in a Communications Receiver 307

6.5 Survey of Equalization Techniques 308

6.6 Linear Equalizers 310

6.7 Nonlinear Equalization 312

6.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization(DFE) 313

6.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation(MLSE)Equalizer 315

6.8 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization 316

6.8.1 Zero Forcing Algorithm 318

6.8.2 Least Mean Square Algorithm 319

6.8.3 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm 321

6.8.4 Summary of Algorithms 323

6.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers 323

6.10 Diversity Techniques 325

6.10.1 Derivation of Selection Diversity Improvement 326

6.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio Combining Improvement 328

6.10.3 Practical Space Diversity Considerations 330

6.10.4 Polarization Diversity 332

6.10.5 Frequency Diversity 335

6.10.6 Time Diversity 335

6.11 RAKE Receiver 336

6.12 Interleaving 338

6.13 Fundamentals of Channel Coding 339

6.14 Block Cooes 340

6.14.1 Examples of Block Codes 344

6.14.2 Case Study of Reed-Solomon Codes 346

6.15 Convolutional Codes 352

6.15.1 Decoding of Convolutional Codes 354

6.16 Coding Gain 356

6.17 Trellis Coded Modulation 356

6.18 Problems 357

7 Speech Coding 361

7.1 Introduction 361

7.2 Characteristics of Speech Signals 363

7.3 Quantization Techniques 365

7.3.1 Uniform Quantization 365

7.3.2 Nonuniform Quantization 365

7.3.3 Adaptive Quantization 368

7.3.4 Vector Quantization 368

7.4 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation 369

7.5 Frequency Domain Coding of Speech 371

7.5.1 Sub-band Coding 372

7.5.2 Adaptive Transform Coding 375

7.6 Vocoders 376

7.6.1 Channel Vocoders 376

7.6.2 Formant Vocoders 377

7.6.3 Cepstrum Vocoders 377

7.6.4 Voice-Excited Vocoder 378

7.7 Linear Predictive Coders 378

7.7.1 LPC-Vocoders 378

7.7.2 Multi-Pulse Excited LPC 381

7.7.3 Code-Excited LPC 382

7.7.4 Residual Excited LPC 383

7.8 Choosing Speech Codecs for Mobile Communications 384

7.9 The GSM COdec 387

7.10 The USDC Codec 389

7.11 Performance Evaluation of Speech Coders 389

7.12 Problems 392

8 Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications 395

8.1 Introduction 395

8.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access 396

8.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA) 397

8.3 Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA) 400

8.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access 404

8.4.1 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access(FHMA) 404

8.4.2 Code Division Multiple Access(CDMA) 405

8.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques 407

8.5 Space Division Multiple Access(SDMA) 409

8.6 Packet Radio 410

8.6.1 Packet Radio Protocols 411

8.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA) Protocols 415

8.6.3 Reservation Protocols 416

8.6.4 Capture Effect in Packet Radio 416

8.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems 417

8.7.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA 422

8.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells 425

8.7.3 Capacity of Space Division Multiple Access 431

8.8 Problems 437

9 Wireless Networking 439

9.1 Introduction to Wireless Networks 439

9.2 Differences Between Wireless and Fixed Telephone Networks 441

9.2.1 The Public Switched Telephone Network(PSTN) 441

9.2.2 Limitations in Wireless Networking 443

9.2.3 Merging Wireless Networks and the PSTN 444

9.3 Development of Wireless Networks 445

9.3.1 First Generation Wireless Networks 445

9.3.2 Second Generation Wireless Networks 448

9.3.3 Third Generation Wireless Networks 449

9.4 Fixed Network Transmission Hierarchy 449

9.5 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks 450

9.5.1 Circuit Switching 452

9.5.2 Packet Switching 452

9.5.3 The X.25 Protocol 454

9.6 Wireless Data Services 455

9.6.1 Cellular Digital Packet Data(CDPD) 455

9.6.2 Advanced Radio Data Information Systems(ARDIS) 457

9.6.3 RAM Mobile Data(RMD) 457

9.7 Common Channel Signaling(CCS) 458

9.7.1 The Distributed Central Switching Office for CCS 459

9.8 Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN) 461

9.8.1 Broadband ISDN and ATM 463

9.9 Signaling System No.7(SS7) 463

9.9.1 Network Services Part(NSP)of SS7 465

9.9.2 The SS7 User Part 466

9.9.3 Signaling Traffic in SS7 467

9.9.4 SS7 Services 468

9.9.5 Performance of SS7 469

9.10 An example of SS7-Global Cellular Network Interoperability 469

9.11 Personal Communication Services/Networks(PCS/PCN) 472

9.11.1 Packet vs.Circuit switching for PCN 472

9.11.2 Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture 473

9.12 Protocols for Network Access 477

9.12.1 Packet Reservation Multiple Access(PRMA) 478

9.13 Network Databases 479

9.13.1 Distributed Database for Mobility Management 479

9.14 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System(UMTS) 480

9.15 Summary 481

10 Wireless Systems and Standards 483

10.1 AMPS and ETACS 483

10.1.1 AMPS and ETACS System Overview 484

10.1.2 Call Handling in AMPS and ETACS 485

10.1.3 AMPS and ETACS Air Interface 487

10.1.4 N-AMPS 491

10.2 United States Digital Cellular(IS-54) 491

10.2.1 USDC Radio Interface 493

10.2.2 United States Digital Cellular Derivatives(IS-94 and IS-136) 500

10.3 Global System for Mobile(GSM) 500

10.3.1 GSM Services and Features 501

10.3.2 GSM System Architecture 502

10.3.3 GSM Radio Subsystem 505

10.3.4 GSM Channel Types 507

10.3.5 Example of a GSM Call 512

10.3.6 Frame Structure for GSM 513

10.3.7 Signal Processing in GSM 515

10.4 CDMA Digital Cellular Standard(IS-95) 519

10.4.1 Frequency and Channel Specifications 520

10.4.2 Forward CDMA Channel 521

10.4.3 Reverse CDMA Channel 527

10.4.4 IS-95 with 14.4 kbps Speech Coder[ANS95] 533

10.5 CT2 Standard For Cordless Telephones 533

10.5.1 CT2 Services and Features 533

10.5.2 The CT2 Standard 534

10.6 Digital European Cordless Telephone(DECT) 535

10.6.1 Features and Characteristics 535

10.6.2 DECT Architecture 536

10.6.3 DECT Functional Concept 537

10.6.4 DECT Radio Link 538

10.7 PACS- Personal Access Communication Systems 539

10.7.1 PACS System Architecture 540

10.7.2 PACS Radio Interface 541

10.8 Pacific Digital Cellular(PDC) 543

10.9 Personal Handyphone System(PHS) 544

10.10 U.S.PCS and ISM Bands 544

10.11 U.S.Wireless Cable Television 547

10.12 Summary of Standards Throughout the World 548

10.13 Problems 551

APPENDICES 555

A Trunking Theory 555

A.1 Erlang B 556

A.1.1 Derivation of Erlang B 556

A.2 Erlang C 561

A.2.1 Derivation of Erlang C 561

B Noise Figure Calculations for Link Budgets 565

C Gaussian Approximations for Spread Spectrum CDMA 569

C.1 The Gaussian Approximation 577

C.2 The Improved Gaussian Approximation(IGA) 582

C.3 A Simplified Expression for the Improved Gaussian Approximation(SEIGA) 585

D Q,erf&erfc Functions 593

D.1 The Q-Function 593

D.2 The erf and erfc functions 595

E Mathematical Tables 599

F Abbreviations and Acronyms 607

G References 617

Index 635