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PART 1 General Concepts 1

Chapter 1 Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation 3

1.1 Why Study Measurement Systems? 3

1.2 Classification of Types of Measurement Applications 5

1.3 Computer-Aided Machines and Processes 7

1.4 Conclusion 9

Problems 10

Bibliography 11

Chapter 2 Generalized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of Measuring Instruments 13

2.1 Functional Elements of an Instrument 13

2.2 Active and Passive Transducers 18

2.3 Analog and Digital Modes of Operation 19

2.4 Null and Deflection Methods 21

2.5 Input-Output Configuration of Instruments and Measurement Systems 22

Methods of Correction for Interfering and Modifying Inputs 26

2.6 Conclusion 38

Problems 39

Chapter 3 Generalized Performance Characteristics of Instruments 40

3.1 Introduction 40

3.2 Static Characteristics and Static Calibration 41

Meaning of Static Calibration 41

Measured Value versus True Value 43

Some Basic Statistics 45

Least-Squares Calibration Curves 54

Calibration Accuracy versus Installed Accuracy 61

Combination of Component Errors in Overall System-Accuracy Calculations 67

Theory Validation by Experimental Testing 72

Effect of Measurement Error on Quality-Control Decisions in Manufacturing 74

Static Sensitivity 76

Computer-Aided Calibration and Measurement: Multiple Regression 78

Linearity 85

Threshold, Noise Floor, Resolution, Hysteresis, and Dead Space 86

Scale Readability 91

Span 91

Generalized Static Stiffness and Input Impedance: Loading Effects 91

Concluding Remarks on Static Characteristics 103

3.3 Dynamic Characteristics 103

Generalized Mathematical Model of Measurement System 103

Digital Simulation Methods for Dynamic Response Analysis 106

Operational Transfer Function 106

Sinusoidal Transfer Function 107

Zero-Order Instrument 109

First-Order Instrument 111

Step Response of First-Order Instruments 114

Ramp Response of First-Order Instruments 121

Frequency Response of First-Order Instruments 123

Impulse Response of First-Order Instruments 128

Second-Order Instrument 131

Step Response of Second-Order Instruments 133

Terminated-Ramp Response of Second-Order Instruments 135

Ramp Response of Second-Order Instruments 137

Frequency Response of Second-Order Instruments 137

Impulse Response of Second-Order Instruments 139

Dead-Time Elements 141

Logarithmic Plotting of Frequency-Response Curves 143

Response of a General Form of Instrument to a Periodic Input 149

Response of a General Form of Instrument to a Transient Input 157

Frequency Spectra of Amplitude-Modulated Signals 167

Characteristics of Random Signals 178

Requirements on Instrument Transfer Function to Ensure Accurate Measurement 194

Sensor Selection Using Computer Simulation 200

Numerical Correction of Dynamic Data 202

Experimental Determination of Measurement-System Parameters 206

Loading Effects under Dynamic Conditions 211

Problems 214

Bibliography 221

PART 2 Measuring Devices 223

Chapter 4 Motion and Dimensional Measurement 225

4.1 Introduction 225

4.2 Fundamental Standards 225

4.3 Relative Displacement: Translational and Rotational 228

Calibration 228

Resistive Potentiometers 231

Resistance Strain Gage 240

Differential Transformers 252

Synchros and Resolvers 262

Variable-Inductance and Variable-Reluctance Pickups 267

Eddy-Current Noncontacting Transducers 271

Capacitance Pickups 273

Piezoelectric Transducers 284

Electro-Optical Devices 292

Photographic and Electronic-Imaging Techniques 312

Photoelastic, Brittle-Coating, and Moir Fringe Stress-Analysis Techniques 319

Displacement-to-Pressure (Nozzle-Flapper) Transducer 321

Digital Displacement Transducers (Translational and Rotary Encoders) 327

Ultrasonic Transducers 335

4.4 Relative Velocity: Translational and Rotational 337

Calibration 337

Velocity by Electrical Differentiation of Displacement Voltage Signals 339

Average Velocity from Measured ??x and ??t 339

Mechanical Flyball Angular-Velocity Sensor 342

Mechanical Revolution Counters and Timers 342

Tachometer Encoder Methods 343

Laser-Based Methods 344

Radar (Microwave) Speed Sensors 345

Stroboscopic Methods 346

Translational-Velocity Transducers (Moving-Coil and Moving-Magnet Pickups) 347

DC Tachometer Generators for Rotary-Velocity Measurement 348

AC Tachometer Generators for Rotary-Velocity Measurement 349

Eddy-Current Drag-Cup Tachometer 349

4.5 Relative-Acceleration Measurements 351

4.6 Seismic- (Absolute-) Displacement Pickups 351

4.7 Seismic- (Absolute-) Velocity Pickups 356

4.8 Seismic- (Absolute-) Acceleration Pickups (Accelerometers) 357

Deflection-Type Accelerometers 358

Null-Balance- (Servo-) Type Accelerometers 369

Accelerometers for Inertial Navigation 372

Mechanical Loading of Accelerometers on the Test Object 373

Laser Doppler Vibrometers 373

4.9 Calibration of Vibration Pickups 375

4.10 Jerk Pickups 378

4.11 Pendulous (Gravity-Referenced) Angular-Displacement Sensors 379

4.12 Gyroscopic (Absolute) Angular-Displacement and Velocity Sensors 383

4.13 Coordinate-Measuring Machines 398

4.14 Surface-Finish Measurement 406

4.15 Machine Vision 413

4.16 The Global-Positioning System (GPS) 421

Problems 423

Bibliography 431

Chapter 5 Force, Torque, and Shaft Power Measurement 432

5.1 Standards and Calibration 432

5.2 Basic Methods of Force Measurement 434

5.3 Characteristics of Elastic Force Transducers 441

Bonded-Strain-Gage Transducers 446

Differential-Transformer Transducers 452

Piezoelectric Transducers 452

Variable-Reluctance/FM-Oscillator Digital Systems 455

Loading Effects 456

5.4 Resolution of Vector Forces and Moments into Rectangular Components 457

5.5 Torque Measurement on Rotating Shafts 464

5.6 Shaft Power Measurement (Dynamometers) 470

5.7 Gyroscopic Force and Torque Measurement 474

5.8 Vibrating-Wire Force Transducers 474

Problems 476

Bibliography 480

Chapter 6 Pressure and Sound Measurement 481

6.1 Standards and Calibration 481

6.2 Basic Methods of Pressure Measurement 482

6.3 Deadweight Gages and Manometers 482

Manometer Dynamics 490

6.4 Elastic Transducers 500

6.5 Vibrating-Cylinder and Other Resonant Transducers 515

6.6 Dynamic Effects of Volumes and Connecting Tubing 517

Liquid Systems Heavily Damped, and Slow-Acting 518

Liquid Systems Moderately Damped, and Fast-Acting 520

Gas Systems with Tube Volume a Small Fraction of Chamber Volume 524

Gas Systems with Tube Volume Comparable to Chamber Volume 526

The Infinite Line-Pressure Probe 527

Conclusion 528

6.7 Dynamic Testing of Pressure-Measuring Systems 528

6.8 High-Pressure Measurement 535

6.9 Low-Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement 536

Diaphragm Gages 536

McLeod Gage 538

Knudsen Gage 540

Momentum-Transfer (Viscosity) Gages 541

Thermal-Conductivity Gages 541

Ionization Gages 545

Dual-Gage Technique 547

6.10 Sound Measurement 547

Sound-Level Meter 548

Microphones 551

Pressure Response of a Capacitor Microphone 554

Acoustic Intensity 565

Acoustic Emission 568

6.11 Pressure-Signal Multiplexing Systems 569

6.12 Special Topics 571

Pressure Distribution 571

Overpressure Protection for Gages and Transducers 573

Problems 574

Bibliography 576

Chapter 7 Flow Measurement 578

7.1 Local Flow Velocity, Magnitude and Direction 578

Flow Visualization 578

Velocity Magnitude from Pitot-Static Tube 582

Velocity Direction from Yaw Tube, Pivoted Vane, and Servoed Sphere 590

Dynamic Wind-Vector Indicator 594

Hot- Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers 596

Hot-Film Shock-Tube Velocity Sensors 611

Laser Doppler Anemometer 611

7.2 Gross Volume Flow Rate 615

Calibration and Standards 616

Constant-Area, Variable-Pressure-Drop Meters ( "Obstruction " Meters) 620

Averaging Pitot Tubes 632

Constant-Pressure-Drop, Variable-Area Meters (Rotameters) 633

Turbine Meters 635

Positive-Displacement Meters 640

Metering Pumps 642

Electromagnetic Flowmeters 643

Drag-Force Flowmeters 648

Ultrasonic Flowmeters 649

Vortex-Shedding Flowmeters 655

Miscellaneous Topics 657

7.2 Gross Mass Flow Rate 660

Volume Flowmeter Plus Density Measurement 660

Direct Mass Flowmeters 664

Problems 672

Bibliography 675

Chapter 8 Temperature and Heat-Flux Measurement 677

8.1 Standards and Calibration 677

8.2 Thermal-Expansion Methods 685

Bimetallic Thermometers 685

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 687

Pressure Thermometers 688

8.3 Thermoelectric Sensors (Thermocouples) 691

Common Thermocouples 699

Reference-Junction Considerations 701

Special Materials, Configurations, and Techniques 704

8.4 Electrical-Resistance Sensors 713

Conductive Sensors(Resistance Thermometers) 713

Bulk Semiconductor Sensors (Thermistors) 719

8.5 Junction Semiconductor Sensors 723

8.6 Digital Thermometers 727

8.7 Radiation Methods 727

Radiation Fundamentals 728

Radiation Detectors: Thermal and Photon 734

Unchopped (DC) Broadband Radiation Thermometers 746

Chopped (AC) Broadband Radiation Thermometers 750

Chopped (AC) Selective-Band (Photon) Radiation Thermometers 752

Automatic Null-Balance Radiation Thermometers 756

Monochromatic-Brightness Radiation Thermometers (Optical Pyrometers) 758

Two-Color Radiation Thermometers 760

Blackbody-Tipped Fiber-Optic Radiation Thermometer 760

Fluoroptic Temperature Measurement 763

Infrared Imaging Systems 764

8.8 Temperature-Measuring Problems in Flowing Fluids 767

Conduction Error 767

Radiation Error 770

Velocity Effects 774

8.9 Dynamic Response of Temperature Sensors 777

Dynamic Compensation of Temperature Sensors 781

8.10 Heat-Flux Sensors 782

Slug-Type (Calorimeter) Sensors 782

Steady-State or Asymptotic Sensors (Gardon Gage) 786

Application Considerations 788

Problems 789

Bibliography 791

Chapter 9 Miscellaneous Measurements 792

9.1 Time, Frequency, and Phase-Angle Measurement 792

9.2 Liquid Level 799

9.3 Humidity 806

9.4 Chemical Composition 809

9.5 Current and Power Measurement 810

9.6 Using "Observers" to Measure Inaccessible Variables in a Physical System 814

9.7 Sensor Fusion (Complementary Filtering) 826

Absolute Angle Measurement 829

Problems 833

Bibliography 834

PART 3 Manipulation, Transmission, and Recording of Data 835

Chapter 10 Manipulating, Computing, and Compensating Devices 837

10.1 Bridge Circuits 837

10.2 Amplifiers 843

Operational Amplifiers 844

Instrumentation Amplifiers 851

Transconductance and Transimpedance Amplifiers 853

Noise Problems, Shielding,and Grounding 855

Chopper, Chopper-Stabilized, and Carrier Amplifiers 858

Charge Amplifiers and Impedance Converters 860

Concluding Remarks 863

10.3 Filters 864

Low-Pass Filters 864

High-Pass Filters 870

Bandpass Filters 870

Band-Rejection Filters 870

Digital Filters 872

A Hydraulic Bandpass Filter for an Oceanographic Transducer 875

Mechanical Filters for Accelerometers 876

Filtering by Statistical Averaging 879

10.4 Integration and Differentiation 879

Integration 879

Differentiation 881

10.5 Dynamic Compensation 889

10.6 Positioning Systems 894

10.7 Addition and Subtraction 904

10.8 Multiplication and Division 904

10.9 Function Generation and Linearization 907

10.10 Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 912

10.11 Voltage-to-Frequency and Frequency-to-Voltage Converters 913

10.12 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Converters; Sample/Hold Amplifiers 913

10.13 Signal and System Analyzers (Spectrum Analyzers) 923

Problems 927

Bibliography 930

Chapter 11 Data Transmission and Instrument Connectivity 931

11.1 Cable Transmission of Analog Voltage and Current Signals 931

11.2 Cable Transmission of Digital Data 935

11.3 Fiber-Optic Data Transmission 936

11.4 Radio Telemetry 937

11.5 Pneumatic Transmission 943

11.6 Synchro Position Repeater Systems 944

11.7 Slip Rings and Rotary Transformers 946

11.8 Instrument Connectivity 948

11.9 Data Storage with Delayed Playback (An Alternative to Data Transmission) 952

Problems 952

Bibliography 953

Chapter 12 Voltage-Indicating and -Recording Devices 954

12.1 Standards and Calibration 954

12.2 Analog Voltmeters and Potentiometers 954

12.3 Digital Voltmeters and Multimeters 961

12.4 Electromechanical Servotype X T and XY Recorders 963

12.5 Thermal-Array Recorders and Data Acquisition Systems 968

12.6 Analog and Digital Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes/Displays and Liquid-Crystal Flat-Panel Displays 968

12.7 Virtual Instruments 974

12.8 Magnetic Tape and Disk Recorders/Reproducers 974

Bibliography 980

Chapter 13 Data-Acquisition Systems for Personal Computers 981

13.1 Essential Features of Data-Acquisition Boards 982

13.2 The DASYLAB Data-Acquisition and -Processing Software 983

The DASYLAB Functional Modules 984

List and Brief Description of the Functional Modules 985

13.3 DASYLAB Simulation Example Number One 988

Simulating Sensor Signals and Recording Them versus Time 988

Stopping an Experiment at a Selected Time 991

Chart Recorder Options 991

Producing Tables or Lists 991

Analog and Digital Meters 992

Some Simple Data-Processing Operations 992

Integration and Differentiation 993

13.4 DASYLAB Simulation Example Number Two 993

Running the Demonstration 997

13.5 DASYLAB Simulation Example Number Three 1000

Running the Demonstration 1003

13.6 A Simple Real-World Experiment Using DASYLAB 1005