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1.Introduction 1

Linux Versus Other Unix-Like Kernels 2

Hardware Dependency 6

Linux Versions 7

Basic Operating System Concepts 8

An Overview of the Unix Filesystem 12

An Overview of Unix Kernels 19

2.Memory Addressing 35

Memory Addresses 35

Segmentation in Hardware 36

Segmentation in Linux 41

Paging in Hardware 45

Paging in Linux 57

3.Processes 79

Processes, Lightweight Processes, and Threads 79

Process Descriptor 81

Process Switch 102

Creating Processes 114

Destroying Processes 126

4.Interrupts and Exceptions 131

The Role of Interrupt Signals 132

Interrupts and Exceptions 133

Nested Execution of Exception and Interrupt Handlers 143

Initializing the Interrupt Descriptor Table 145

Exception Handling 148

Interrupt Handling 151

Softirqs and Tasklets 171

Work Queues 180

Returning from Interrupts and Exceptions 183

5.Kernel Synchronization 189

How the Kernel Services Requests 189

Synchronization Primitives 194

Synchronizing Accesses to Kernel Data Structures 217

Examples of Race Condition Prevention 222

6.Timing Measurements 227

Clock and Timer Circuits 228

The Linux Timekeeping Architecture 232

Updating the Time and Date 240

Updating System Statistics 241

Software Timers and Delay Functions 244

System Calls Related to Timing Measurements 252

7.Process Scheduling 258

Scheduling Policy 258

The Scheduling Algorithm 262

Data Structures Used by the Scheduler 266

Functions Used by the Scheduler 270

Runqueue Balancing in Multiprocessor Systems 284

System Calls Related to Scheduling 290

8.Memory Management 294

Page Frame Management 294

Memory Area Management 323

Noncontiguous Memory Area Management 342

9.Process Address Space 351

The Process's Address Space 352

The Memory Descriptor 353

Memory Regions 357

Page Fault Exception Handler 376

Creating and Deleting a Process Address Space 392

Managing the Heap 395

10.System Calls 398

POSIX APIs and System Calls 398

System Call Handler and Service Routines 399

Entering and Exiting a System Call 401

Parameter Passing 409

Kernel Wrapper Routines 418

11.Signals 420

The Role of Signals 420

Generating a Signal 433

Delivering a Signal 439

System Calls Related to Signal Handling 450

12.The Virtual Filesystem 456

The Role of the Virtual Filesystem （VFS） 456

VFS Data Structures 462

Filesystem Types 481

Filesystem Handling 483

Pathname Lookup 495

Implementations of VFS System Calls 505

File Locking 510

13.I/O Architecture and Device Drivers 519

I/O Architecture 519

The Device Driver Model 526

Device Files 536

Device Drivers 540

Character Device Drivers 552

14.Block Device Drivers 560

Block Devices Handling 560

The Generic Block Layer 566

The I/O Scheduler 572

Block Device Drivers 585

Opening a Block Device File 595

15.The Page Cache 599

The Page Cache 600

Storing Blocks in the Page Cache 611

Writing Dirty Pages to Disk 622

The sync（）, fsync（）, and fdatasync（） System Calls 629

16.Accessing Files 631

Reading and Writing a File 632

Memory Mapping 657

Direct I/O Transfers 668

AsynchronousI/O 671

17.Page Frame Reclaiming 676

The Page Frame Reclaiming Algorithm 676

Reverse Mapping 680

Implementing the PFRA 689

Swapping 712

18.The Ext2 and Ext3 Filesystems 738

General Characteristics of Ext2 738

Ext2 Disk Data Structures 741

Ext2 Memory Data Structures 750

Creating the Ext2 Filesystem 753

Ext2 Methods 755

Managing Ext2 Disk Space 757

The Ext3 Filesystem 766

19.Process Communication 775

Pipes 776

FIFOs 787

System V IPC 789

POSIX Message Queues 806

20.Program Execution 808

Executable Files 809

Executable Formats 824

Execution Domains 827

The exec Functions 828

A.System Startup 835

B.Modules 842

Bibliography 852

Source Code Index 857

Index 905