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1 Introduction 1

1.1 What Is a Programming Language? 2

1.2 Abstractions in Programming Languages 5

1.3 Computational Paradigms 13

1.4 Language Definition 20

1.5 Language Translation 22

1.6 Language Design 29

Exercises 30

Notes and References 33

2 History 34

2.1 Early History:The First Programmer 35

2.2 The 1950s:The First Programming Languages 37

2.3 The 1960s:An Explosion in Programming Languages 39

2.4 The 1970s:Simplicity,Abstraction,Study 42

2.5 The 1980s:New Directions and the Rise of Object-Orientation 43

2.6 The 1990s:Consolidation,the Internet,Libraries,and Scripting 46

2.7 The Future 49

Exercises 50

Notes and References 53

3 Language Design Principles 55

3.1 History and Design Criteria 57

3.2 Efficiency 59

3.3 Regularity 60

3.4 Further Language Design Principles 63

3.5 C++:A Case Study in Language Design 68

Exercises 72

Notes and References 76

4 Syntax 77

4.1 Lexical Structure of Programming Languages 78

4.2 Context-Free Grammars and BNFs 83

4.3 Parse Trees and Abstract Syntax Trees 89

4.4 Ambiguity,Associativity,and Precedence 92

4.5 EBNFs and Syntax Diagrams 97

4.6 Parsing Techniques and Tools 101

4.7 Lexics versus Syntax versus Semantics 113

Exercises 115

Notes and References 123

5 Basic Semantics 125

5.1 Attributes,Binding,and Semantic Functions 126

5.2 Declarations,Blocks,and Scope 130

5.3 The Symbol Table 139

5.4 Name Resolution and Overloading 152

5.5 Allocation,Lifetimes,and the Environment 159

5.6 Variables and Constants 167

5.7 Aliases,Dangling References,and Garbage 174

Exercises 180

Notes and References 187

6 Data Types 189

6.1 Data Types and Type Information 192

6.2 Simple Types 197

6.3 Type Constructors 200

6.4 Type Nomenclature in Sample Languages 215

6.5 Type Equivalence 218

6.6 Type Checking 225

6.7 Type Conversion 231

6.8 Polymorphic Type Checking 235

6.9 Explicit Polymorphism 244

Exercises 250

Notes and References 258

7 Control I-Expressions and Statements 260

7.1 Expressions 262

7.2 Conditional Statements and Guards 270

7.3 Loops and Variation on WHILE 276

7.4 The GOTO Controversy 280

7.5 Exception Handling 282

Exercises 299

Notes and References 307

8 Control II-Procedures and Environments 309

8.1 Procedure Definition and Activation 311

8.2 Procedure Semantics 313

8.3 Parameter Passing Mechanisms 317

8.4 Procedure Environments,Activations,and Allocation 325

8.5 Dynamic Memory Management 340

8.6 Exception Handling and Environments 344

Exercises 346

Notes and References 355

9 Abstract Data Types and Modules 356

9.1 The Algebraic Specification of Abstract Data Types 359

9.2 Abstract Data Type Mechanisms and Modules 364

9.3 Separate Compilation in C,C++ Namespaces,and Java Packages 368

9.4 Ada Packages 375

9.5 Modules in ML 381

9.6 Modules in Earlier Languages 385

9.7 Problems with Abstract Data Type Mechanisms 390

9.8 The Mathematics of Abstract Data Types 398

Exercises 402

Notes and References 407

10 Object-Oriented Programming 409

10.1 Software Reuse and Independence 410

10.2 Java:Objects,Classes,and Methods 413

10.3 Inheritance 419

10.4 Dynamic Binding 431

10.5 C++ 434

10.6 Smalltalk 446

10.7 Design Issues in Object-Oriented Languages 452

10.8 Implementation Issues in Object-Oriented Languages 456

Exercises 462

Notes and References 470

11 Functional Programming 471

11.1 Programs as Functions 473

11.2 Functional Programming in an Imperative Language 476

11.3 Scheme:A Dialect of LISP 481

11.4 ML:Functional Programming with Static Typing 494

11.5 Delayed Evaluation 507

11.6 Haskell-A Fully-Curried Lazy Language with Overloading 512

11.7 The Mathematics of Functional Programming I:Recursive Functions 520

11.8 The Mathematics of Functional Programming Ⅱ:Lambda Calculus 524

Exercises 529

Notes and References 537

12 Logic Programming 539

12.1 Logic and Logic Programs 541

12.2 Horn Clauses 545

12.3 Resolution and Unification 548

12.4 The Language Prolog 552

12.5 Problems with Logic Programming 563

12.6 Extending Logic Programming:Constraint Logic Programming and Equational Systems 568

Exercises 572

Notes and References 577

13 Formal Semantics 579

13.1 A Sample Small Language 581

13.2 Operational Semantics 585

13.3 Denotational Semantics 595

13.4 Axiomatic Semantics 604

13.5 Proofs of Program Correctness 611

Exercises 614

Notes and References 619

14 Parallel Programming 620

14.1 Introduction to Parallel Processing 622

14.2 Parallel Processing and Programming Languages 626

14.3 Threads 634

14.4 Semaphores 643

14.5 Monitors 648

14.6 Message Passing 654

14.7 Parallelism in Non-Imperative Languages 660

Exercises 665

Notes and References 671

Bibliography 673

Index 685