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1 Welcome Aboard 1

1.1 What We Will Try to Do 1

1.2 How We Will Get There 2

1.3 Two Recurring Themes 3

1.3.1 The Notion of Abstraction 3

1.3.2 Hardware versus Software 5

1.4 A Computer System 7

1.5 Two Very Important Ideas 9

1.6 Computers as Universal Computational Devices 9

1.7 How Do We Get the Electrons to Do the Work？ 12

1.7.1 The Statement of the Problem 13

1.7.2 The Algorithm 13

1.7.3 The Program 14

1.7.4 The ISA 14

1.7.5 The Microarchitecture 15

1.7.6 The Logic Circuit 16

1.7.7 The Devices 16

1.7.8 Putting It Together 16

Exercises 17

2 Bits，Data Types，and Operations 21

2.1 Bits and Data Types 21

2.1.1 The Bit as the Unit of Information 21

2.1.2 Data Types 22

2.2 Integer Data Types 23

2.2.1 Unsigned Integers 23

2.2.2 Signed Integers 23

2.3 2’s Complement Integers 25

2.4 Binary-Decimal Conversion 27

2.4.1 Binary to Decimal Conversion 27

2.4.2 Decimal to Binary Conversion 28

2.5 Operations on Bits—Part I：Arithmetic 29

2.5.1 Addition and Subtraction 29

2.5.2 Sign-Extension 30

2.5.3 Overflow 31

2.6 Operations on Bits—Part II：Logical Operations 33

2.6.1 The AND Function 33

2.6.2 The OR Function 34

2.6.3 The NOT Function 35

2.6.4 The Exclusive-OR Function 35

2.7 Other Representations 36

2.7.1 The Bit Vector 36

2.7.2 Floating Point Data Type 37

2.7.3 ASCII Codes 40

2.7.4 Hexadecimal Notation 41

Exercises 43

3 Digital Logic Structures 51

3.1 The Transistor 51

3.2 Logic Gates 53

3.2.1 The NOT Gate（Inverter） 53

3.2.2 OR and NOR Gates 54

3.2.3 AND and NAND Gates 56

3.2.4 DeMorgan’s Law 58

3.2.5 Larger Gates 58

3.3 Combinational Logic Circuits 59

3.3.1 Decoder 59

3.3.2 Mux 60

3.3.3 Full Adder 61

3.3.4 The Programmable Logic Array （PLA） 63

3.3.5 Logical Completeness 64

3.4 Basic Storage Elements 64

3.4.1 The R-S Latch 64

3.4.2 The Gated D Latch 66

3.4.3 A Register 66

3.5 The Concept of Memory 67

3.5.1 Address Space 68

3.5.2 Addressability 68

3.5.3 A 22-by-3-Bit Memory 68

3.6 Sequential Logic Circuits 70

3.6.1 A Simple Example：The Combination Lock 71

3.6.2 The Concept of State 72

3.6.3 Finite State Machines 74

3.6.4 An Example：The Complete Implementation of a Finite State Machine 77

3.7 The Data Path of the LC-3 80

Exercises 82

4 The von Neumann Model 97

4.1 Basic Components 97

4.1.1 Memory 98

4.1.2 Processing Unit 99

4.1.3 Input and Output 100

4.1.4 Control Unit 100

4.2 The LC-3：An Example von Neumann Machine 101

4.3 Instruction Processing 103

4.3.1 The Instruction 103

4.3.2 The Instruction Cycle 104

4.4 Changing the Sequence of Execution 107

4.4.1 Control of the Instruction Cycle 108

4.5 Stopping the Computer 110

Exercises 111

5 The LC-3 115

5.1 The ISA：Overview 115

5.1.1 Memory Organization 116

5.1.2 Registers 116

5.1.3 The Instruction Set 117

5.1.4 Opcodes 117

5.1.5 Data Types 118

5.1.6 Addressing Modes 118

5.1.7 Condition Codes 120

5.2 Operate Instructions 120

5.3 Data Movement Instructions 123

5.3.1 PC-Relative Mode 124

5.3.2 Indirect Mode 125

5.3.3 Base＋offset Mode 127

5.3.4 Immediate Mode 128

5.3.5 An Example 129

5.4 Control Instructions 130

5.4.1 Conditional Branches 131

5.4.2 An Example 132

5.4.3 Two Methods for Loop Control 135

5.4.4 Example：Adding a Column of Numbers Using a Sentinel 135

5.4.5 The J M P Instruction 136

5.4.6 The TRAP Instruction 137

5.5 Another Example：Counting Occurrences of a Character 138

5.6 The Data Path Revisited 141

5.6.1 Basic Components of the Data Path 141

5.6.2 The Instruction Cycle 144

Exercises 145

6 Programming 155

6.1 Problem Solving 155

6.1.1 Systematic Decomposition 155

6.1.2 The Three Constructs：Sequential，Conditional，Iterative 156

6.1.3 LC-3 Control Instructions to Implement the Three Constructs 157

6.1.4 The Character Count Example from Chapter 5，Revisited 158

6.2 Debugging 162

6.2.1 Debugging Operations 163

6.2.2 Examples：Use of the Interactive Debugger 164

Exercises 172

7 Assembly Language 177

7.1 Assembly Language Programming—Moving Up a Level 177

7.2 An Assembly Language Program 178

7.2.1 Instructions 179

7.2.2 Pseudo-ops（Assembler Directives） 182

7.2.3 Example：The Character Count Example of Section 5.5，Revisited 183

7.3 The Assembly Process 185

7.3.1 Introduction 185

7.3.2 A Two-Pass Process 185

7.3.3 The First Pass：Creating the Symbol Table 186

7.3.4 The Second Pass：Generating the Machine Language Program 187

7.4 Beyond the Assembly of a Single Assembly Language Program 188

7.4.1 The Executable Image 189

7.4.2 More than One Object File 189

Exercises 190

8 I/O 199

8.1 I/O Basics 199

8.1.1 Device Registers 199

8.1.2 Memory-Mapped I/O versus Special Input/Output Instructions 200

8.1.3 Asynchronous versus Synchronous 200

8.1.4 Interrupt-Driven versus Polling 202

8.2 Input from the Keyboard 202

8.2.1 Basic Input Registers（the KBDR and the KBSR） 202

8.2.2 The Basic Input Service Routine 202

8.2.3 Implementation of Memory-Mapped Input 203

8.3 Output to the Monitor 204

8.3.1 Basic Output Registers（the DDR and the DSR） 204

8.3.2 The Basic Output Service Routine 205

8.3.3 Implementation of Memory-Mapped Output 206

8.3.4 Example：Keyboard Echo 207

8.4 A More Sophisticated Input Routine 207

8.5 Interrupt-Driven I/O 209

8.5.1 What Is Interrupt-Driven I/O？ 209

8.5.2 Why Have Interrupt-Driven I/O？ 210

8.5.3 Generation of the Interrupt Signal 211

8.6 Implementation of Memory-Mapped I/O，Revisited 214

Exercises 215

9 TRAP Routines and Subroutines 219

9.1 LC-3 TRAP Routines 219

9.1.1 Introduction 219

9.1.2 The TRAP Mechanism 220

9.1.3 The TRAP Instruction 221

9.1.4 The Complete Mechanism 222

9.1.5 TRAP Routines for Handling I/O 225

9.1.6 TRAP Routine for Halting the Computer 225

9.1.7 Saving and Restoring Registers 229

9.2 Subroutines 230

9.2.1 The Call/Return Mechanism 230

9.2.2 The JSR（R）Instruction 232

9.2.3 The TRAP Routine for Character Input，Revisited 233

9.2.4 PUTS：Writing a Character String to the Monitor 235

9.2.5 Library Routines 235

Exercises 240

10 And，Finally&The Stack 251

10.1 The Stack：Its Basic Structure 251

10.1.1 The Stack—An Abstract Data Type 251

10.1.2 Two Example Implementations 252

10.1.3 Implementation in Memory 253

10.1.4 The Complete Picture 257

10.2 Interrupt-Driven I/O（Part 2） 258

10.2.1 Initiate and Service the Interrupt 259

10.2.2 Return from the Interrupt 261

10.2.3 An Example 262

10.3 Arithmetic Using a Stack 264

10.3.1 The Stack as Temporary Storage 264

10.3.2 An Example 265

10.3.3 OpAdd，OpMult，and OpNeg 265

10.4 Data Type Conversion 272

10.4.1 Example：The Bogus Program：2＋3＝e 272

10.4.2 ASCII to Binary 273

10.4.3 Binary to ASCII 276

10.5 Our Final Example：The Calculator 278

Exercises 283

11 Introduction to Programmingi n C 289

11.1 Our Objective 289

11.2 Bridging the Gap 290

11.3 Translating High-Level Language Programs 292

11.3.1 Interpretation 292

11.3.2 Compilation 293

11.3.3 Pros and Cons 293

11.4 The C Programming Language 293

11.4.1 The C Compiler 295

11.5 A Simple Example 297

11.5.1 The Function main 297

11.5.2 Formatting，Comments，and Style 299

11.5.3 The C Preprocessor 300

11.5.4 Input and Output 301

11.6 Summary 304

Exercises 305

12 Variables and Operators 307

12.1 Introduction 307

12.2 Variables 308

12.2.1 Three Basic Data Types：int，char，double 308

12.2.2 Choosing Identifiers 310

12.2.3 Scope：Local versus Global 311

12.2.4 More Examples 313

12.3 Operators 314

12.3.1 Expressions and Statements 315

12.3.2 The Assignment Operator 316

12.3.3 Arithmetic Operators 317

12.3.4 Order of Evaluation 318

12.3.5 Bitwise Operators 319

12.3.6 Relational Operators 320

12.3.7 Logical Operators 322

12.3.8 Increment /Decrement Operators 322

12.3.9 Expressions with Multiple Operators 324

12.4 Problem Solving Using Operators 324

12.5 Tying it All Together 326

12.5.1 Symbol Table 326

12.5.2 Allocating Space for Variables 328

12.5.3 A Comprehensive Example 331

12.6 Additional Topics 332

12.6.1 Variations of the Three Basic Types 332

12.6.2 Literals，Constants，and Symbolic Values 334

12.6.3 Storage Class 335

12.6.4 Additional C Operators 336

12.7 Summary 337

Exercises 338

13 Control Structures 343

13.1 Introduction 343

13.2 Conditional Constructs 344

13.2.1 The if Statement 344

13.2.2 The if-else Statement 347

13.3 Iteration Constructs 350

13.3.1 The while Statement 350

13.3.2 The for Statement 353

13.3.3 The do-while Statement 358

13.4 Problem Solving Using Control Structures 359

13.4.1 Problem 1：Approximating the Value of π 360

13.4.2 Problem 2：Finding Prime Numbers Less than 100 362

13.4.3 Problem 3：Analyzing an E-mail Address 366

13.5 Additional C Control Structures 368

13.5.1 The switch Statement 368

13.5.2 The break and continue Statements 370

13.5.3 An Example：Simple Calculator 370

13.6 Summary 372

Exercises 372

14 Functions 379

14.1 Introduction 379

14.2 Functions in C 380

14.2.1 A Function with a Parameter 380

14.2.2 Example：Area of a Ring 384

14.3 Implementing Functions in C 385

14.3.1 Run-Time Stack 385

14.3.2 Getting It All to Work 388

14.3.3 Tying It All Together 393

14.4 Problem Solving Using Functions 394

14.4.1 Problem 1：Case Conversion 395

14.4.2 Problem 2：Pythagorean Triples 397

14.5 Summary 398

Exercises 399

15 Testing and Debugging 407

15.1 Introduction 407

15.2 Types of Errors 408

15.2.1 Syntactic Errors 409

15.2.2 Semantic Errors 409

15.2.3 Algorithmic Errors 411

15.3 Testing 412

15.3.1 Black-Box Testing 412

15.3.2 White-Box Testing 413

15.4 Debugging 414

15.4.1 Ad Hoc Techniques 414

15.4.2 Source-Level Debuggers 415

15.5 Programming for Correctness 417

15.5.1 Nailing Down the Specification 417

15.5.2 Modular Design 418

15.5.3 Defensive Programming 418

15.6 Summary 419

Exercises 421

16 Pointers and Arrays 427

16.1 Introduction 427

16.2 Pointers 428

16.2.1 Declaring Pointer Variables 429

16.2.2 Pointer Operators 430

16.2.3 Passing a Reference Using Pointers 432

16.2.4 Null Pointers 433

16.2.5 Demystifying the Syntax 434

16.2.6 An Example Problem Involving Pointers 434

16.3 Arrays 436

16.3.1 Declaring and Using Arrays 436

16.3.2 Examples Using Arrays 438

16.3.3 Arrays as Parameters 440

16.3.4 Strings in C 441

16.3.5 The Relationship Between Arrays and Pointers in C 446

16.3.6 Problem Solving：Insertion Sort 446

16.3.7 Common Pitfalls with Arrays in C 449

16.4 Summary 451

Exercises 451

17 Recursion 457

17.1 Introduction 457

17.2 What Is Recursion？ 458

17.3 Recursion versus Iteration 459

17.4 Towers of Hanoi 460

17.5 Fibonacci Numbers 464

17.6 Binary Search 468

17.7 Integer to ASCII 471

17.8 Summary 473

Exercises 473

18 I/O in C 481

18.1 Introduction 481

18.2 The C Standard Library 481

18.3 I/O，One Character at a Time 482

18.3.1 I/O Streams 482

18.3.2 putchar 483

18.3.3 getchar 483

18.3.4 Buffered I/O 483

18.4 Formatted I/O 485

18.4.1 printf 485

18.4.2 scanf 487

18.4.3 Variable Argument Lists 489

18.5 I/O from Files 491

18.6 Summary 493

Exercises 494

19 Data Structures 497

19.1 Introduction 497

19.2 Structures 498

19.2.1 typedef 500

19.2.2 Implementing Structures in C 501

19.3 Arrays of Structures 502

19.4 Dynamic Memory Allocation 504

19.4.1 Dynamically Sized Arrays 506

19.5 Linked Lists 508

19.5.1 An Example 510

19.6 Summary 516

Exercises 517

A The LC-3 ISA 521

A.1 Overview 521

A.2 Notation 523

A.3 The Instruction Set 523

A.4 Interrupt and Exception Processing 543

A.4.1 Interrupts 543

A.4.2 Exceptions 544

B From LC-3 to x86 547

B.1 LC-3 Features and Corresponding x86 Features 548

B.1.1 Instruction Set 548

B.1.2 Memory 553

B.1.3 Internal State 553

B.2 The Format and Specification of x86 Instructions 557

B.2.1 Prefix 558

B.2.2 Opcode 559

B.2.3 ModR/M Byte 559

B.2.4 SIB Byte 560

B.2.5 Displacement 560

B.2.6 Immediate 560

B.3 An Example 562

C The Microarchitecture of the LC-3 565

C.1 Overview 565

C.2 The State Machine 567

C.3 The Data Path 569

C.4 The Control Structure 569

C.5 Memory-Mapped I/O 575

C.6 Interrupt and Exception Control 576

C.6.1 Initiating an Interrupt 579

C.6.2 Returning from an Interrupt，RTI 581

C.6.3 The Illegal Opcode Exception 582

C.7 Control Store 583

D The C Programming Language 585

D.1 Overview 585

D.2 C Conventions 585

D.2.1 Source Files 585

D.2.2 Header Files 585

D.2.3 Comments 586

D.2.4 Literals 586

D.2.5 Formatting 588

D.2.6 Keywords 588

D.3 Types 589

D.3.1 Basic Data Types 589

D.3.2 Type Qualifiers 590

D.3.3 Storage Class 591

D.3.4 Derived Types 592

D.3.5 typedef 594

D.4 Declarations 595

D.4.1 Variable Declarations 595

D.4.2 Function Declarations 596

D.5 Operators 596

D.5.1 Assignment Operators 597

D.5.2 Arithmetic Operators 597

D.5.3 Bit-wise Operators 598

D.5.4 Logical Operators 598

D.5.5 Relational Operators 599

D.5.6 Increment/Decrement Operators 599

D.5.7 Conditional Expression 600

D.5.8 Pointer，Array，and Structure Operators 600

D.5.9 sizeof 601

D.5.10 Order of Evaluation 602

D.5.11 Type Conversions 602

D.6 Expressions and Statements 603

D.6.1 Expressions 603

D.6.2 Statements 604

D.7 Control 604

D.7.1 If 604

D.7.2 If-else 605

D.7.3 Switch 605

D.7.4 While 606

D.7.5 For 607

D.7.6 Do-while 607

D.7.7 Break 608

D.7.8 continue 608

D.7.9 return 609

D.8 The C Preprocessor 609

D.8.1 Macro substitution 609

D.8.2 File inclusion 610

D.9 Some Standard Library Functions 610

D.9.1 I/O Functions 611

D.9.2 String Functions 612

D.9.3 Math Functions 613

D.9.4 Utility Functions 613

E Useful Tables 615

E.1 Commonly Used Numerical Prefixes 615

E.2 Standard ASCII codes 616

E.3 Powers of 2 617

F Solutions to Selected Exercises 619