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PART I BACKGROUND 1

CHAPTER 1　NTRODUCTION 　　 3

The State of the Industry Today 　 3

The Need to Use Effective Requirements Practices 　 6

WhatIsa Process?　 7

The Requirements Process 　 7

1-1 Process Integrates People,Tools,Procedures,and Methods 8

What Is the Requirements Process?　 9

Benefits of a Process Approach 　 11

ContentsList of Figures　 11

Pitfalls of Using a Process Approach 　 12

1-2 Benchmark Data on Improvements for CMM Level 3 Organizations 12

About This Book 　 14

Roles 　 14

KeyTerms 　 14

Foreword 　 15

A Requirements Taxonomy 　 16

1-3 Requirements Taxonomy 16

Preface 　 17

Systems and Software Engineers　 17

Intended Audience 　 17

Recommended Mind-setfor Readers ofThis Book 　 18

The"Team,"the"Project,"and the"Project Manager"　　 18

Key References and Suggested Readings　 19

Footnotes in This Book　 19

Upcoming Topics　 19

Key References and Suggested Readings 　 20

Summary　 20

Acknowledgments 　 23

PART 11 RECOMMENDED REQUIREMENTS PRACTICES　 25

CHAPTER 2　COMMIT TO THE APPROACH 27

What Do We Mean by Commitment? 　 28

2-1 Customer and Supplier Issues 29

How Can Commitment Be Attained and Maintained? 　 30

2-2 The Partnering Concept 31

2-3 Issue Resolution Ladder 34

2-4 Action Planning Worksheet 35

2-5 Sample Project Charter 36

Recommendations to Assist in Evolving the Partnering Approach 　 37

2-6 Benefits of Partnering 37

Involve Managers with Authority in the Partnering Workshop 　 38

Develop a Requirements Plan 　 38

2-7 Sample Table of Contents for a Requirements Plan 39

Utilize a Set of Mechanisms, Methods, Techniques, and Tools 　 40

Work Toward a Quality Culture　 40

2-9 PRC Rules of Conduct 41

2-8 Advantages of Utilizing a Set of Mechanisms,Methods,Techniques,and Tools 41

Summary 　 42

Key References and Suggested Readings 　 42

CHAPTER 3 ESTABLISH AND UTILIZE A JOINT　TEAM RESPONSIBLE FOR THE REQUIREMENTS 45

What Is a"Joint Team”? 46

What Does the Joint Team Do? 47

Who Should Be on the Joint Team? 48

How Is the Joint Team Created? 48

What Metrics Need to Be Created and Tracked? 49

How Often Should the Joint Team Meet? 49

Customer and Supplier Roles 　 50

Calculating Return on Investment (ROI) from Using Effective Requirements Practices 　 50

3-1 Calculating ROI from Effective Requirements Practices 51

Summary 　 53

3-2 Customer(Buyer)and Supplier Roles Throughout the System LifeCycle 53

Key References and Suggested Readings 　 54

CHAPTER 4 DEFINE THE REAL CUSTOMER NEEDS　 57

Recommendations to Facilitate Getting to the Real Requirements 59

Invest More in the Requirements Process 60

4-1 Effect of Requirements Process Investment on Program Costs 62

Train PMs to Pay More Attention to the Requirements Process 62

Identifya Project Champion 63

DefinetheProjectVisionandScope 64

4-2 The Role of the Champion 64

Identify a Requirements Engineer and Utilize Domain Experts to Perform Requirements Engineering Tasks 65

4-3 Suggested Table of Contents for an OCD 66

4-4 Template for a Vision and Scope Document 73

Train Developers Not to Make Requirements Decisions andNotto GoldPlate 74

Utilizea VarietyofTechniques to Elicit Customerand UserRequirementsand Expectations 74

Use Cases 75

4-5 Example of a Use Case Diagram 76

TrainRequirementsEngineerstoWriteGoodRequirements 79

TheImpactofRequirementsErrors 79

TheImportanceofRequirementstoP rogram Costs 80

4-6 Types of Nonclerical Requirements Errors 80

4-7 RelativeCosttoFixanError 81

4-8 Relative Cost to Fix Requirements Defects When Discovered in Later Stages 81

4-9 Criteria of a Good Requirement 82

WhatIs a GoodRequirement? 82

Document the Rationalefor Each Requirement 84

Utilize Methods and Automated Tools to Analyze,Prioritize,and Track Requirements 85

4-10 CommerciaJ Requirements Tools,Vendors,and Web Sites 86

Approaches,Tools,andMethodsforPrioritizingRequirements 87

4-11 Sample Requirements Attribute Matrix 87

Collect Requirements from Multiple Viewpoints 89

4-12 The PREview Process 89

Pitfalls 90

Considerthe Useof Formal Methods When Appropriate 90

Summary 91

Key References and Suggested Readings 92

CHAPTER 5 USE AND CONTINUALLY IMPROVE A REQUIREMENTS PROCESS 97

What Is a Process? 98

How Is a Process Designed? 99

5-1 Process Flowchart Template 100

5-2 Process Description Template 101

Why Is a Requirements Process Needed? 103

5-3 The Rationale for Requirements Engineering 104

5-4 Industry Experience 105

5-5 Lessons Learned for Systems Success from Industry Experience 106

Goals of Requirements Engineers 107

5-6 Goals of Good Requirements Engineers 108

5-7 Before You Write Requirements 108

5-8 The Up-front Process 109

5-9 What Drives Requirements? 109

A Sample Requirements Process 110

5-10 SE-CMM PAs 111

5-11 Requirements Process Macro(high level) 112

5-12 Requirements Process Micro:Assess New/Changed Requirements and Control Changes 114

5-13 Requirements Process Micro:Understand Customer Needs and Expectations 115

5-14 Requirements Process Micro:Define and Allocate Requirements 116

5-15 Template for a Project Requirements Policy 119

How Can Organizations Create or Tailor a Requirements Process? 122

5-16 The Value of an Organizational Working Group 123

Tailoring of Processes 123

Web Support:An Organizational Process Asset Library 124

5-17 Sample Requirements Jump-start Kit 125

Summary 125

Key References and Suggested Readings 125

CHAPTER 6 ITERATE THE SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE REPEATEDLY 131

The System Engineering Process 132

6-1 The System Engineering Process 133

Recommendations 134

Considerthe"Designability"of the System When Addressing the Requirements 134

Utilize a System Architecture Process 136

Allocate Requirements to Functional Partitions,Objects,People,or Support Elements to Support Synthesis ofSolutions 136

6-2 SA Process Flow 137

Consider Open Systems Standards 146

6-3 Iterative System Decomposition 146

6-4 Architecture Development Process Overview 147

6-5 TRM High-Level View 148

6-6 Distributed Computing Architecture Diagram 149

6-7 Detailed TRM 150

Guidelines for"Architecting" 151

6-8 Architecture Development Cycle 151

Another View 153

Key References and Suggested Readings 154

Summary 154

CHAPTER 7 USE A MECHANISM TO MAINTAIN PROJECT COMMUNICATION 159

Natural Human Tendency 160

Setting the Stage 160

A Proactive Approach to Achieve Effective Communication 161

An Example Mechanism 162

7-1 The Requirements Macroprocess 163

When Negativism Shows Up 164

Another Valuable Mechanism—Brown Bags 165

Guidelines for Effective Meetings 165

Guidelines for Effective E-mail Communication 167

7-2 Guidelines for Use of Graphics in E-mail Messages 170

The Value of a Common Vocabulary 172

The Use ofVertical Experts 173

A Final Recommendation 174

Summary 174

Avoid Multiple Locations 174

Key References and Suggested Readings 175

CHAPTER 8 SMELECT FAMLIAR METHODS AND MAINTAIN A SET OF WORK PRODUCTS 179

The Foundation for System Development 180

What Are the Candidate Methods and Techniques? 180

Which Methods and Techniques Are Best? 182

8-2 Relative Capability of Methods to Remove Various Types of Defects 184

8-1 Quality Method Effectiveness and Costs 184

8-3 Positive and Negative Factors That Influence Software Development Productivity 187

Use of Function Points for Software Estimation 189

Quality Function Deployment 190

What Comprises the Requirements Specification? 192

The Rationale for Prioritizing Requirements 193

8-4 Requirements Prioritization Checklist 195

Summary 195

Key References and Suggested Readings 196

CHAPTER 9 PERFORM REQUIREMENTS VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION 201

V V Terminology 202

V V Planning 203

The Importance of V V 203

9-1 Verification and Validation 203

9-2 Certain Words Flag Unverifiable Requirements 204

9-3 Examples of Unverifiable and Verifiable Requirements 205

9-4 Verification Planning Checklist 207

Verification Methods 207

9-5 Definition and Guidelines for Requirements Traceability 208

Using Traceability to Support Verification 208

V V Techniques 208

A Structured Approach to Testing 210

Pitfalls 211

Recommendations 211

Summary 213

Key References and Suggested Readings 214

CHAPTER 10 PROVIDE AN EFFECTIVE MECHANISM TO ACCOMMODATE REQUIREMENTS CHANGES 217

Why Such Emphasis? 218

Planning for Changes in Requirements 219

10-1 TCM Process Context Diagram 220

Requirements Leakage 221

The Recommended Mechanism 221

10-2 The Requirements Process Macro 222

10-3 Sources of Unofficial Requirements and Ways to Gain Control of Unofficial Requirements 223

Focus on What Counts! 224

How Much Can Requirements Change? 224

A Way to Deal with Requirements Creep Contractually 225

10-4 Other Recommendations to Control Requirements Changes 227

Other Recommendations 227

Summary 229

Key References and Suggested Readings 229

CHAPTER 11 PERFORM THE DEVELOPMENT EFFORT USING KNOWN,FAMILIAR PROVEN INDUSTRY,ORGANIZATIONAL,AND PROJECT BEST PRACTICES 231

What's All the Fuss? 233

What Can We Do About It? 234

Provide to the Development Team an Understanding of the Relevant Policies,Processes,and Procedures to Be Used 235

Recommendations 235

Utilize a Practical,Effective project Management Approach 235

11-1 Checklist for Project Start-up 236

11-2 The Ten Steps of Structured Project Management 238

11-3 The Myths of Software Project Management 239

11-4 Modern Process Approaches for Solving Conventional Problems 242

11-5 Evolution of Project Artifacts 243

Ensure That Selected Members of the Development Team Have Domain Knowledge 244

perform the Development Effort Using Known(Trained),Proven Processes,Mechanisms,Methods,Techniques,and Tools 244

11-6 Technologies Used on Successful and Unsuccessful Projects 246

Provide and Utilize Mechanisms to Foster Effective Communications Throughout the Development Team 247

Utilize Peer Reviews and Inspections to Remove Defects om Processes and Work Products 248

Ensure That Configuration ManagementIs Effective 250

Foster an Independent QA Role That Proactively Assists and Supports the Development Team and Provides Value to the Project 251

Ensure That Subcontractors Are Managed So That Their Contributions Are Effective 252

11-7 Subcontractor Management Key Practices 253

Use Appropriate,Useful Metrics to Manage the Project 255

11-8 Overview of the Seven Core Metrics 257

11-9 The Basic Parameters of an EV System 258

Ensure That a Systematic Approach to Involving the Customer in This Entire Effort Is Working 258

11-10 An Innovative Use of EV to Track Progress 259

Manage Processes Quantitatively.Also,Use a Defect Prevention (DP) Process,a Technology Change Management(TCM)Process,and a Process Change Management(PCM)Process.Perform Extensive Reinsertion and Reuse Throughout the Organization 261

Musings on Project Management 262

11-11 Musings on Project Management 263

Summary 265

Key References and Suggested Readings 266

PART Ⅲ WHAT TO DO NEXT 271

Common Issues 273

CHAPTER 12 HOW TO PROCEED 273

RequirementsasaKeyDrivertoAnySystems orSoftwareEffort 275

The Customer 275

Key Factors in Addressing These Issues 275

Financing Improvements in the Requirements Process 275

Metrics 276

Management Awareness and Expectations 276

Survival of the Fittest 276

Where to Start 277

TheDevelopment Team 277

12-1 Requirements Activities Checklist 279

How to Prioritize Needed Efforts 284

12-2 Guidelines for System Development Based on Requirements Considerations 286

12-3 How a Requirements Process Facilitates Effective Project Performance 288

Relationship of the Recommended Effective Requirements Practices to the CMM 289

12-4 Mapping of the Effective Requirements Practices to the SW-CMM 290

12-5 Bad Excuses Related to Requirements Definition and Management 291

ButI HaveSoManyThingstoDo... 291

What If We Are"Further Along"on Our Project? 293

Summary 293

Key References and Suggested Readings 294

Epilogue 299

List of Acronym s 301

Glossary 309

Credits 321

Bibliography 325

Author Index 345

Subject Index 349

List of Figures 349