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1 Introduction to the Llnux Kernel 1

History of Unix 1

Along Came Linus: Introduction to Linux 3

Overview of Operating Systems and Kernels 4

Linux Versus Classic Unix Kernels 6

Linux Kernel Versions 8

The Linux Kernel Development Community 10

Before We Begin 10

2 Getting Started with the Kernel 11

Obtaining the Kernel Source 11

Using Git 11

Installing the Kernel Source 12

Using Patches 12

The Kernel Source Tree 12

Building the Kernel 13

Configuring the Kernel 14

Minimizing Build Noise 15

Spawning Multiple Build Jobs 16

Installing the New Kernel 16

A Beast of a Dierent Nature 16

No libc or Standard Headers 17

GNU C 18

Inline Functions 18

Inline Assembly 19

Branch Annotation 19

No Memory Protection 20

No （Easy） Use of Floating Point 20

Small, Fixed-Size Stack 20

Synchronization and Concurrency 21

Importance of Portability 21

Conclusion 21

3 Process Management 23

The Process 23

Process Descriptor and the Task Structure 24

Allocating the Process Descriptor 25

Storing the Process Descriptor 26

Process State 27

Manipulating the Current Process State 29

Process Context 29

The Process Family Tree 29

Process Creation 31

Copy-on-Write 31

Forking 32

vfork（） 33

The Linux Implementation of Threads 33

Creating Threads 34

Kernel Threads 35

Process Termination 36

Removing the Process Descriptor 37

The Dilemma of the Parentless Task 38

Conclusion 40

4 Process Schedullng 41

Multitasking 41

Linux's Process Scheduler 42

Policy 43

I/O-Bound Versus Processor-Bound Processes 43

Process Priority 44

Timeslice 45

The Scheduling Policy in Action 45

The Linux Scheduling Algorithm 46

Scheduler Classes 46

Process Scheduling in Unix Systems 47

Fair Scheduling 48

The Linux Scheduling Implementation 50

Time Accounting 50

The Scheduler Entity Structure 50

The Virtual Runtime 51

Process Selection 52

Picking the Next Task 53

Adding Processes to the Tree 54

Removing Processes from the Tree 56

The Scheduler Entry Point 57

Sleeping and Waking Up 58

Wait Queues 58

Waking Up 61

Preemption and Context Switching 62

User Preemption 62

Kernel Preemption 63

Real-Time Scheduling Policies 64

Scheduler-Related System Calls 65

Scheduling Policy and Priority-Related System Calls 66

Processor Affinity System Calls 66

Yielding Processor Time 66

Conclusion 67

5 System Calls 69

Communicating with the Kernel 69

APIs, POSIX, and the C Library 70

Syscalls 71

System Call Numbers 72

System Call Performance 72

System Call Handler 73

Denoting the Correct System Call 73

Parameter Passing 74

System Call Implementation 74

Implementing System Calls 74

Verifying the Parameters 75

System Call Context 78

Final Steps in Binding a System Call 79

Accessing the System Call from User-Space 81

Why Not to Implement a System Call 82

Conclusion 83

6 Kernel Data Structures 85

Linked Lists 85

Singly and Doubly Linked Lists 85

Circular Linked Lists 86

Moving Through a Linked List 87

The Linux Kernel's Implementation 88

The Linked List Structure 88

Defining a Linked List 89

List Heads 90

Manipulating Linked Lists 90

Adding a Node to a Linked List 90

Deleting a Node from a Linked List 91

Moving and Splicing Linked List Nodes 92

Traversing Linked Lists 93

The Basic Approach 93

The Usable Approach 93

Iterating Through a List Backward 94

Iterating While Removing 95

Other Linked List Methods 96

Queues 96

kfifo 97

Creating a Queue 97

Enqueuing Data 98

Dequeuing Data 98

Obtaining the Size of a Queue 98

Resetting and Destroying the Queue 99

Example Queue Usage 99

Maps 100

Initializing an idr 101

Allocating a New UID 101

Looking Up a UID 102

Removing a UID 103

Destroying an idr 103

Binary Trees 103

Binary Search Trees 104

Self-Balancing Binary Search Trees 105

Red-Black Trees 105

rbtrees 106

What Data Structure to Use, When 108

Algorithmic Complexity 109

Algorithms 109

Big-O Notation 109

Big Theta Notation 109

Time Complexity 110

Conclusion 111

7 Interrupts and Interrupt Handlers 113

Interrupts 113

Interrupt Handlers 114

Top Halves Versus Bottom Halves 115

Registering an Interrupt Handler 116

Interrupt Handler Flags 116

An Interrupt Example 117

Freeing an Interrupt Handler 118

Writing an Interrupt Handler 118

Shared Handlers 119

A Real-Life Interrupt Handler 120

Interrupt Context 122

Implementing Interrupt Handlers 123

/proc/interrupts 126

Interrupt Control 127

Disabling and Enabling Interrupts 127

Disabling a Specific Interrupt Line 129

Status of the Interrupt System 130

Conclusion 131

8 Bottom Halves and Deferrlng Work 133

Bottom Halves 134

Why Bottom Halves? 134

A World of Bottom Halves 135

The Original “Bottom Half” 135

Task Queues 135

Softirqs and Tasklets 136

Dispelling the Confusion 137

Softirqs 137

Implementing Softirqs 137

The Softirq Handler 138

Executing Softirqs 138

Using Softirqs 140

Assigning an Index 140

Registering Your Handler 141

Raising Your Softirq 141

Tasklets 142

Implementing Tasklets 142

The Tasklet Structure 142

Scheduling Tasklets 143

Using Tasklets 144

Declaring Your Tasklet 144

Writing Your Tasklet Handler 145

Scheduling Your Tasklet 145

ksoftirqd 146

The Old BH Mechanism 148

Work Queues 149

Implementing Work Queues 149

Data Structures Representing the Threads 149

Data Structures Representing the Work 150

Work Queue Implementation Summary 152

Using Work Queues 153

Creating Work 153

Your Work Queue Handler 153

SchedulingWork 153

Flushing Work 154

Creating New Work Queues 154

The Old Task Queue Mechanism 155

Which Bottom Half Should I Use? 156

Locking Between the Bottom Halves 157

Disabling Bottom Halves 157

Conclusion 159

9 An Introductlon to Kernel Synchronlzatlon 161

Critical Regions and Race Conditions 162

Why Do We Need Protection? 162

The Single Variable 163

Locking 165

Causes of Concurrency 167

Knowing What to Protect 168

Deadlocks 169

Contention and Scalability 171

Conclusion 172

10 Kernel Synchronlzatlon Methods 175

Atomic Operations 175

Atomic Integer Operations 176

64-Bit Atomic Operations 180

Atomic Bitwise Operations 181

Spin Locks 183

Spin Lock Methods 184

Other Spin Lock Methods 186

Spin Locks and Bottom Halves 187

Reader-Writer Spin Locks 188

Semaphores 190

Counting and Binary Semaphores 191

Creating and Initializing Semaphores 192

Using Semaphores 193

Reader-Writer Semaphores 194

Mutexes 195

Semaphores Versus Mutexes 197

Spin Locks Versus Mutexes 197

Completion Variables 197

BKL: The Big Kernel Lock 198

Sequential Locks 200

Preemption Disabling 201

Ordering and Barriers 203

Conclusion 206

11 Timers and Time Management 207

Kernel Notion of Time 208

The Tick Rate: HZ 208

The Ideal HZ Value 210

Advantages with a Larger HZ 210

Disadvantages with a Larger HZ 211

Jiffies 212

Internal Representation of Jiffies 213

Jiffies Wraparound 214

User-Space and HZ 216

Hardware Clocks and Timers 216

Real-Time Clock 217

System Timer 217

The Timer Interrupt Handler 217

The Time of Day 220

Timers 222

Using Timers 222

Timer Race Conditions 224

Timer Implementation 224

Delaying Execution 225

Busy Looping 225

Small Delays 226

schedule timeout（） 227

schedule timeout （） Implementation 228

Sleeping on a Wait Queue, with a Timeout 229

Conclusion 230

12 Memory Management 231

Pages 231

Zones 233

Getting Pages 235

Getting Zeroed Pages 236

Freeing Pages 237

kmalloc（） 238

gfp mask Flags 238

Action Modifiers 239

Zone Modifiers 240

Type Flags 241

kfree（） 243

vmalloc（） 244

Slab Layer 245

Design of the Slab Layer 246

Slab Allocator Interface 249

Allocating from the Cache 250

Example of Using the Slab Allocator 251

Statically Allocating on the Stack 252

Single-Page Kernel Stacks 252

Playing Fair on the Stack 253

High Memory Mappings 253

Permanent Mappings 254

Temporary Mappings 254

Per-CPU Allocations 255

The New percpu Interface 256

Per-CPU Data at Compile-Time 256

Per-CPU Data at Runtime 257

Reasons for Using Per-CPU Data 258

Picking an Allocation Method 259

Conclusion 260

13 The Vlrtual Fllesystem 261

Common Filesystem Interface 261

Filesystem Abstraction Layer 262

Unix Filesystems 263

VFS Objects and Their Data Structures 265

The Superblock Object 266

Superblock Operations 267

The Inode Object 270

Inode Operations 271

The Dentry Object 275

Dentry State 276

The Dentry Cache 276

Dentry Operations 278

The File Object 279

File Operations 280

Data Structures Associated with Filesystems 285

Data Structures Associated with a Process 286

Conclusion 288

14 The Block I/O Layer 289

Anatomy of a Block Device 290

Buffers and Buffer Heads 291

The bio Structure 294

I/O vectors 295

The Old Versus the New 296

Request Queues 297

I/O Schedulers 297

The Job of an I/O Scheduler 298

The Linus Elevator 299

The Deadline I/O Scheduler 300

The Anticipatory I/O Scheduler 302

The Complete Fair Queuing I/O Scheduler 303

The Noop I/O Scheduler 303

I/O Scheduler Selection 304

Conclusion 304

15 The Process Address Space 305

Address Spaces 305

The Memory Descriptor 306

Allocating a Memory Descriptor 308

Destroying a Memory Descriptor 309

The mm struct and Kernel Threads 309

Virtual Memory Areas 309

VMA Flags 311

VMA Operations 312

Lists and Trees of Memory Areas 313

Memory Areas in Real Life 314

Manipulating Memory Areas 315

find_vma（） 316

find_vma_prev（） 317

find_vma_intersection（） 317

mmap （） and do_mmap （） : Creating an Address Interval 318

munmap（） and do_munmap（）: Removing an Address Interval 320

Page Tables 320

Conclusion 322

16 The Page Cache and Page Writeback 323

Approaches to Caching 323

Write Caching 324

Cache Eviction 324

Least Recently Used 325

The Two-List Strategy 325

The Linux Page Cache 326

The address space Object 326

address_space Operations 328

Radix Tree 330

The Old Page Hash Table 330

The Buffer Cache 330

The Flusher Threads 331

Laptop Mode 333

History: bdflush, kupdated, and pdflush 333

Avoiding Congestion with Multiple Threads 334

Conclusion 335

17 Devices and Modules 337

Device Types 337

Modules 338

Hello, Worldl 338

Building Modules 340

Living in the Source Tree 340

Living Externally 342

Installing Modules 342

Generating Module Dependencies 342

Loading Modules 343

Managing Configuration Options 344

Module Parameters 346

Exported Symbols 348

The Device Model 348

Kobjects 349

Ktypes 350

Ksets 351

Interrelation of Kobjects, Ktypes, andKsets 351

Managing and Manipulating Kobjects 352

Reference Counts 353

Incrementing and Decrementing Reference Counts 354

Krefs 354

sysfs 355

Adding and Removing kobjects from sysfs 357

Adding Files to sysfs 358

Default Attributes 358

Creating New Attributes 359

Destroying Attributes 360

sysfs Conventions 360

The Kernel Events Layer 361

Conclusion 362

18 Debugging 363

Getting Started 363

Bugs in the Kernel 364

Debugging by Printing 364

Robustness 365

Loglevels 365

The Log Buffer 366

syslogd and klogd 367

Transposing printf （） and printk （） 367

Oops 367

ksymoops 369

kallsyms 369

Kernel Debugging Options 370

Asserting Bugs and Dumping Information 370

Magic SysRq Key 371

The Saga of a Kernel Debugger 372

gdb 372

kgdb 373

Poking and Probing the System 373

Using UID as a Conditional 373

Using Condition Variables 374

Using Statistics 374

Rate and Occurrence Limiting Your Debugging 375

Binary Searching to Find the Culprit Change 376

Binary Searching with Git 376

When All Else Fails: The Community 377

Conclusion 378

19 Portability 379

Portable Operating Systems 379

History of Portability in Linux 380

Word Size and Data Types 381

Opaque Types 384

Special Types 384

Explicitly Sized Types 385

Signedness of Chars 386

Data Alignment 386

Avoiding Alignment Issues 387

Alignment of Nonstandard Types 387

Structure Padding 387

Byte Order 389

Time 391

Page Size 391

Processor Ordering 392

SMP Kernel Preemption, and High Memory 393

Conclusion 393

20 Patches, Hacking, and the Community 395

The Community 395

Linux Coding Style 396

Indention 396

Switch Statements 396

Spacing 397

Braces 398

Line Length 399

Naming 400

Functions 400

Comments 400

Typedefs 401

Use Existing Routines 402

Minimize if defs in the Source 402

Structure Initializers 402

Fixing Up Code Ex Post Facto 403

Chain of Command 403

Submitting Bug Reports 403

Patches 404

Generating Patches 404

Generating Patches with Git 405

Submitting Patches 406

Conclusion 406

Bibliography 407

Index 411