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Introduction 1

1．The Pre-Socratic PhilosophersSixth and Fifth Centuries B.C.E. 11

Thales 14

Anaximander 17

Anaximenes 23

Pythagoras 25

Xenophanes 28

Heraclitus 31

Parmenides 35

Zeno 37

Empedocles 40

Anaxagoras 42

Leucippus and Democritus 45

2．The Athenian PeriodFifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E. 52

The Sophists 52

Protagoras 53

Gorgias 54

Thrasymachus 55

Callicles and Critias 56

Socrates 58

Plato 63

Aristotle 76

3．The Hellenistic and Roman PeriodsFourth Century B.C.E.through Fourth Century C.E. 96

Epicureanism 96

Stoicism 100

Neoplatonism 105

4．Medieval and Renaissance PhilosophyFifth through Fifteenth Centuries 109

Saint Augustine 113

The Encyclopediasts 118

John Scotus Eriugena 120

Saint Anselm 123

Muslim and Jewish Philosophies 126

Averroёs 128

Maimonides 129

The Problem of Faith and Reason 131

The Problem of the Universals 132

Saint Thomas Aquinas 135

William of Ockham 147

Renaissance Philosophers 151

5．Continental Rationalism and British EmpiricismThe Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 160

Descartes 160

Hobbes 180

Spinoza 185

Leibniz 190

Locke 196

Berkeley 204

Hume 209

Kant 218

6．Post-Kantian British and Continental PhilosophyThe Nineteenth Century 235

Hegel 235

Schopenhauer 245

Kierkegaard 254

Marx 266

Nietzsche 279

Utilitarianism 288

Bentham 288

Mill 293

Frege 296

7．Pragmatism,the Analytic Tradition,and the Phenomenological Tradition and Its AftermathThe Twentieth Century 305

Pragmatism 305

James 306

Dewey 313

The Analytic Tradition 318

Moore 319

Russell 324

Logical Positivism 331

Wittgenstein 337

Quine 349

The Phenomenological Tradition and Its Aftermath 359

Husserl 359

Heidegger 363

Sartre 371

Structuralism and Poststructuralism 384

Saussure 384

Lévi-Strauss 387

Lacan 392

Derrida 398

Farewell to the Twentieth Century 402

Nussbaum 402

Glossary of Philosophical Terms 416

Selected Bibliography 433

Index 443