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Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1

1.1 Why study language？ 1

1.2 What is language？ 3

1.3 Design features of language 3

1.3.1 Arbitrariness 4

1.3.2 Duality 6

1.3.3 Creativity 7

1.3.4 Displacement 8

1.4 Origin of language 9

1.5 Functions of language 10

1.5.1 Informative 11

1.5.2 Interpersonal function 12

1.5.3 Performative 13

1.5.4 Emotive function 13

1.5.5 Phatic communion 14

1.5.6 Recreational function 15

1.5.7 Metalingual function 16

1.6 What is linguistics？ 16

1.7 Main branches of linguistics 17

1.7.1 Phonetics 17

1.7.2 Phonology 18

1.7.3 Morphology 19

1.7.4 Syntax 19

1.7.5 Semantics 20

1.7.6 Pragmatics 20

1.8 Macrolinguistics 20

1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 21

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 21

1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 22

1.8.4 Computational linguistics 22

1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 23

1.9.1 Descriptives.prescriptive 23

1.9.2 Synchronic vs.diachronic 24

1.9.3 Langue＆parole 24

1.9.4 Competence and performance 25

1.9.5 Etic vs.Emic 26

Further Reading 27

Questions and Exercises 28

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 31

2.1 Speech production and perception 31

2.2 Speech organs 32

2.3 Segments，divergences，and phonetic transcription 36

2.3.1 Segments and divergences 36

2.3.2 Phonetic transcription 36

2.4 Consonants 39

2.4.1 Consonants and vowels 39

2.4.2 Consonants 39

2.4.3 Manners of articulation 40

2.4.4 Places of articulation 42

2.4.5 The consonants of English 44

2.5 Vowels 45

2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description 45

2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels 46

2.5.3 Vowel glides 48

2.5.4 The vowels ofRP 48

2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 52

2.6.1 Coarticulation 52

2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 53

2.7 Phonological analysis 54

2.8 Phonemes and allophones 55

2.8.1 Minimal pairs 55

2.8.2 The phoneme theory 57

2.8.3 Allophones 57

2.9 Phonological processes 60

2.9.1 Assimilation 60

2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules 61

2.9.3 Rule ordering 63

2.10 Distinctive features 66

2.11 Syllables 68

2.11.1 The syllable structure 68

2.11.2 Sonority scale 70

2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle 71

2.12 Stress 71

Further Reading 72

Questions and Exercises 73

Chapter 3 Lexicon 76

3.1 What is word？ 76

3.1.1 Three senses of“word” 76

3.1.2 Identification of words 78

3.1.3 Classification of words 80

3.2 The formation of word 84

3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology 84

3.2.2 Types ofmorphemes 84

3.2.3 Inflection and word formation 88

3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology 93

3.3 Lexical change 96

3.3.1 Lexical change proper 97

3.3.2 Phonological change 103

3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change 105

3.3.4 Semantic change 107

3.3.5 Orthographic change 110

Further Reading 110

Questions and Exercises 111

Chapter 4 Syntax 115

4.1 The traditional approach 115

4.1.1 Number，gender and case 116

4.1.2 Tense and aspect 117

4.1.3 Concord and government 118

4.2 The structural approach 119

4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 119

4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis 122

4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 129

4.3 The generative approach 131

4.3.1 Deep and surface structures 132

4.3.2 The standard theory and after 135

4.3.3 Government，binding，etc 140

4.4 The functional approach 148

4.4.1 Functional sentence perspective 148

4.4.2 Systemic-functional grammar 150

Further Reading 155

Questions and Exercises 156

Chapter 5 Meaning 158

5.1 Meanings of“meaning” 158

5.2 The referential theory 160

5.3 Sense relations 163

5.3.1 Synonymy 163

5.3.2 Antonymy 164

5.3.3 Hyponymy 168

5.4 Componential analysis 170

5.5 Sentence meaning 173

5.5.1 An integrated theory 174

5.5.2 Logical semantics 179

Further Reading 187

Questions and Exercises 188

Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 191

6.1 Introduction 191

6.1.1 Evidence 192

6.1.2 Current issues 193

6.2 Language comprehension 194

6.2.1 Word recognition 195

6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity 198

6.2.3 Syntactic processing 199

6.2.4 Semantics and sentence memory 202

6.2.5 Basic processes in reading 204

6.3 Discourse/text interpretations 206

6.3.1 Schemata and inference drawing 207

6.3.2 Story structure 210

6.4 Language production 212

6.4.1 Speech production 212

6.4.2 Written language 215

Further Reading 217

Questions and Exercises 218

Chapter 7 Language，Culture，and Society 223

7.1 Language and culture 223

7.1.1 How does language relate to culture？ 223

7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 228

7.1.3 Case studies 232

7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study？ 233

7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom 234

7.2 Language and society 235

7.2.1 How does language relate to society？ 235

7.2.2 A situationally and socially variationist perspective 236

7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics？ 239

7.2.4 What implications can we get from sociolinguistics？ 240

7.3 Summary 242

Further Reading 243

Questions and Exercises 244

Chapter 8 Language in Use 246

8.1 Speech act theory 247

8.1.1 Performatives and constatives 247

8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act 249

8.2 The theory of conversational implicature 252

8.2.1 The cooperative principle 252

8.2.2 Violation of the maims 255

8.2.3 Characteristics ofimplicature 258

8.3 Post-Gricean developments 262

8.3.1 Relevance theory 263

8.3.2 The Q-and R-principles 266

8.3.3 The Q-，I-and M-principles 272

Further Reading 279

Questions and Exercises 280

Chapter 9 Language and Literature 282

9.1 Theoretical background 282

9.2 Some general features of the literary language 284

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 284

9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language 286

9.2.3 The analysis of literary language 288

9.3 The language in poetry 290

9.3.1 Sound patterning 290

9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning 291

9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterning 292

9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound 294

9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 295

9.3.6 How to analyse poetry？ 296

9.4 The language in fiction 298

9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view 298

9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation 301

9.4.3 Prose style 306

9.4.4 How to analyse the language of fiction？ 307

9.5 The language in drama 308

9.5.1 How should we analyse drama？ 308

9.5.2 Analysing dramatic language 310

9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts？ 316

Further Reading 317

Questions and Exercises 318

Chapter 10 Language and Computer 320

10.1 Computer-assisted language learning（CALL） 321

10.1.1 CAL/CAI vs CALL 321

10.1.2 Phases of CALL development 322

10.1.3 Technology 324

10.2 Machine translation 326

10.2.1 History of development 326

10.2.2 Research methods 329

10.2.3 MT quality 332

10.2.4 MT and the Internet 333

10.2.5 Spoken language translation 334

10.2.6 MT and human translation 335

10.3 Corpuslinguistics 336

10.3.1 Definition 336

10.3.2 Criticisms and the revival of corpus linguistics 337

10.3.3 Concordance 338

10.3.4 Text encoding and annotation 339

10.3.5 The roles of corpus data 341

10.4 Information retrieval 344

10.4.1 Scope defined 344

10.4.2 An information retrieval system 345

10.4.3 Three main areas of reearch 346

10.5 Mail and news 347

Further Reading 349

Questions and Exercises 350

Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Languagereaching 352

11.1 The relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching 352

11.2 Various linguistic views and their significance in language learning and teaching 354

11.2.1 Traditional grammar 354

11.2.2 Structuralist linguistics 354

11.2.3 Transformational-Generative linguistics 355

11.2.4 Functional linguistics 356

11.2.5 The theory of communicative competence 356

11.3 Syllabus design 358

11.3.1 What is syllabus？ 358

11.3.2 Major factors in syllabus design 358

11.3.3 Types of syllabus 359

11.4 Language learning 366

11.4.1 Grammar and language learning 368

11.4.2 Input and language learning 370

11.4.3 Interlanguage in language learning 372

11.5 Error analysis 374

11.5.1 Errors，mistakes，and error analysis 374

11.5.2 Attitudes to errors 374

11.5.3 Procedure of error analysis 376

11.5.4 Contrastive analysis and non-contrastive analysis 376

11.6 Testing 378

11.6.1 Two different approaches to testing 379

11.6.2 Types of test 379

11.6.3 Requirements of a good test 380

11.6.4 Test content and test form 383

11.6.5 Marking and interpretation of scores 384

11.7 Summarv 386

Further Reading 387

Questions and Exercises 388

Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 392

12.0 Introduction 392

12.1 The Prague School 394

12.1.1 Introduction 394

12.1.2 Phonology and phonological oppositions 395

12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective（FSP） 397

12.2 The London Scbool 401

12.2.1 Malinowski's theories 402

12.2.2 Firth's theories 404

12.2.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 408

12.3 American Structuralism 423

12.3.1 Early period：Boas and Sapir 424

12.3.2 Bloomfield's theory 427

12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics 429

12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar 433

12.4.1 The innateness hypothesis 434

12.4.2 What is a generative grammar？ 437

12.4.3 The Classical Theory 438

12.4.4 The Standard Theory 444

12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory 446

12.4.6 Later theories 449

12.4.7 Main features of TG Grammar 452

12.5 Revisionists？Rebels？ 452

12.5.1 Case Grammar 452

12.5.2 Generative Semantics 454

Further Reading 457

Questions and Exercises 459

Bibliography 460

Key to Questions and Exercises 478

Glossary and Index 499