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Chapter Ⅰ Materials：Structure，Properties，and Performance 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Monolithic，Composite，and Hierarchical Materials 3

1.3 Structure of Materials 15

1.3.1 Crystal Structures 16

1.3.2 Metals 19

1.3.3 Ceramics 25

1.3.4 Glasses 30

1.3.5 Polymers 31

1.3.6 Liquid Crystals 39

1.3.7 Biological Materials and Biomaterials 40

1.3.8 Porous and Cellular Materials 44

1.3.9 Nano-and Microstructure of Biological Materials 45

1.3.10 The Sponge Spicule：An Example of a Biological Material 56

1.3.11 Active（or Smart）Materials 57

1.3.12 Electronic Materials 58

1.3.13 Nanotechnology 60

1.4 Strength of Real Materials 61

Suggested Reading 64

Exercises 65

Chapter 2 Elasticity and Viscoelasticity 71

2.1 Introduction 71

2.2 Longitudinal Stress and Strain 72

2.3 Strain Energy（or Deformation Energy）Density 77

2.4 Shear Stress and Strain 80

2.5 Poisson’s Ratio 83

2.6 More Complex States of Stress 85

2.7 Graphical Solution of a Biaxial State of Stress：the Mohr Circle 89

2.8 Pure Shear：Relationship between G and E 95

2.9 Anisotropic Effects 96

2.10 Elastic Properties of Polycrystals 107

2.11 Elastic Properties of Materials 110

2.11.1 Elastic Properties of Metals 111

2.11.2 Elastic Properties of Ceramics 111

2.11.3 Elastic Properties of Polymers 116

2.11.4 Elastic Constants of Unidirectional Fiber Reinforced Composite 117

2.12 Viscoelasticity 120

2.12.1 Storage and Loss Moduli 124

2.13 Rubber Elasticity 126

2.14 Mooney-Rivlin Equation 131

2.15 Elastic Properties of Biological Materials 134

2.15.1 Blood Vessels 134

2.15.2 Articular Cartilage 137

2.15.3 Mechanical Properties at the Nanometer Level 140

2.16 Elastic Properties of Electronic Materials 143

2.17 Elastic Constants and Bonding 145

Suggested Reading 155

Exercises 155

Chapter 3 Plasticity 161

3.1 Introduction 161

3.2 Plastic Deformation in Tension 163

3.2.1 Tensile Curve Parameters 171

3.2.2 Necking 172

3.2.3 Strain Rate Effects 176

3.3 Plastic Deformation in Compression Testing 183

3.4 The Bauschunger Effect 187

3.5 Plastic Deformation of Polymers 188

3.5.1 Stress-Strain Curves 188

3.5.2 Glassy Polymers 189

3.5.3 Semicrystalline Polymers 190

3.5.4 Viscous Flow 191

3.5.5 Adiabatic Heating 192

3.6 Plastic Deformation of Glasses 193

3.6.1 Microscopic Deformation Mechanism 195

3.6.2 Temperature Dependence and Viscosity 197

3.7 Flow，Yield，and Failure Criteria 199

3.7.1 Maximum-Stress Criterion（Rankine） 200

3.7.2 Maximum-Shear-Stress Criterion（Tresca） 200

3.7.3 Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion（von Mises） 201

3.7.4 Graphical Representation and Experimental Verification of Rankine，Tresca，and von Mises Criteria 201

3.7.5 Failure Criteria for Brittle Materials 205

3.7.6 Yield Criteria for Ductile Polymers 209

3.7.7 Failure Criteria for Composite Materials 211

3.7.8 Yield and Failure Criteria for Other Anisotropic Materials 213

3.8 Hardness 214

3.8.1 Macro indentation Tests 216

3.8.2 Microindentation Tests 221

3.8.3 Nanoindentation 225

3.9 Formability：Important Parameters 229

3.9.1 Plastic Anisotropy 231

3.9.2 Punch-Stretch Tests and Forming-Limit Curves （or Keeler-Goodwin Diagrams） 232

3.10 Muscle Force 237

3.11 Mechanical Properties of Some Biological Materials 241

Suggested Reading 245

Exercises 246

Chapter 4 Imperfections：Point and Line Defects 251

4.1 Introduction 251

4.2 Theoretical Shear Strength 252

4.3 Atomic or Electronic Point Defects 254

4.3.1 Equilibrium Concentration of Point Defects 256

4.3.2 Production of Point Defects 259

4.3.3 Effect of Point Defects on Mechanical Properties 260

4.3.4 Radiation Damage 261

4.3.5 Ion Implantation 265

4.4 Line Defects 266

4.4.1 Experimental Observation of Dislocations 270

4.4.2 Behavior of Dislocations 273

4.4.3 Stress Field Around Dislocations 275

4.4.4 Energy of Dislocations 278

4.4.5 Force Required to Bow a Dislocation 282

4.4.6 Dislocations in Various Structures 284

4.4.7 Dislocations in Ceramics 293

4.4.8 Sources of Dislocations 298

4.4.9 Dislocation Pileups 302

4.4.10 Intersection of Dislocations 304

4.4.11 Deformation Produced by Motion of Dislocations （Orowan’s Equation） 306

4.4.12 The Peierls-Nabarro Stress 309

4.4.13 The Movement of Dislocations：Temperature and Strain Rate Effects 310

4.4.14 Dislocations in Electronic Materials 313

Suggested Reading 316

Exercises 317

Chapter 5 Imperfections：Interfacial and Volumetric Defects 321

5.1 Introduction 321

5.2 Grain Boundaries 321

5.2.1 Tilt and Twist Boundaries 326

5.2.2 Energy of a Grain Boundary 328

5.2.3 Variation of Grain-Boundary Energy with Misorientation 330

5.2.4 Coincidence Site Lattice（CSL）Boundaries 332

5.2.5 Grain-Boundary Triple Junctions 334

5.2.6 Grain-Boundary Dislocations and Ledges 334

5.2.7 Grain Boundaries as a Packing of Polyhedral Units 336

5.3 Twinning and Twin Boundaries 336

5.3.1 Crystallography and Morphology 337

5.3.2 Mechanical Effects 341

5.4 Grain Boundaries in Plastic Deformation（Grain-size Strengthening） 345

5.4.1 Hall-Petch Theory 348

5.4.2 Cottrell’s Theory 349

5.4.3 Li’s Theory 350

5.4.4 Meyers-Ashworth Theory 351

5.5 Other Internal Obstacles 353

5.6 Nanocrystalline Materials 355

5.7 Volumetric or Tridimensional Defects 358

5.8 Imperfections in Polymers 361

Suggested Reading 364

Exercises 364

Chapter 6 Geometry of Deformation and Work-Hardening 369

6.1 Introduction 369

6.2 Geometry of Deformation 373

6.2.1 Stereographic Projections 373

6.2.2 Stress Required for Slip 374

6.2.3 Shear Deformation 380

6.2.4 Slip in Systems and Work-Hardening 381

6.2.5 Independent Slip Systems in Polycrystals 384

6.3 Work-Hardening in Polycrystals 384

6.3.1 Taylor’s Theory 386

6.3.2 Seeger’s Theory 388

6.3.3 Kuhlmann-Wilsdorfs Theory 388

6.4 Softening Mechanisms 392

6.5 Texture Strengthening 395

Suggested Reading 399

Exercises 399

Chapter 7 Fracture：Macroscopic Aspects 404

7.1 Introduction 404

7.2 Theorectical Tensile Strength 406

7.3 Stress Concentration and Griffith Criterion of Fracture 409

7.3.1 Stress Concentrations 409

7.3.2 Stress Concentration Factor 409

7.4 Griffith Criterion 416

7.5 Crack Propagation with Plasticity 419

7.6 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics 421

7.6.1 Fracture Toughness 422

7.6.2 Hypotheses of LEFM 423

7.6.3 Crack-Tip Separation Modes 423

7.6.4 Stress Field in an Isotropic Material in the Vicinity of a Crack Tip 424

7.6.5 Details of the Crack-Tip Stress Field in Mode Ⅰ 425

7.6.6 Plastic-Zone Size Correction 428

7.6.7 Variation in Fracture Toughness with Thickness 431

7.7 Fracture Toughness Parameters 434

7.7.1 Crack Extension Force G 434

7.7.2 Crack Opening Displacement 437

7.7.3 J Integral 440

7.7.4 R Curve 443

7.7.5 Relationships among Different Fracture Toughness Parameters 444

7.8 Importance of KIc in Practice 445

7.9 Post-Yield Fracture Mechanics 448

7.10 Statistical Analysis of Failure Strength 449

Appendix：Stress Singularity at Crack Tip 458

Suggested Reading 460

Exercises 460

Chapter 8 Fracture：Microscopic Aspects 466

8.1 Introduction 466

8.2 Facture in Metals 468

8.2.1 Crack Nucleation 468

8.2.2 Ductile Fracture 469

8.2.3 Brittle，or Cleavage，Fracture 480

8.3 Facture in Ceramics 487

8.3.1 Microstructural Aspects 487

8.3.2 Effect of Grain Size on Strength of Ceramics 494

8.3.3 Fracture of Ceramics in Tension 496

8.3.4 Fracture in Ceramics Under Compression 499

8.3.5 Thermally Induced Fracture in Ceramics 504

8.4 Fracture in Polymers 507

8.4.1 Brittle Fracture 507

8.4.2 Crazing and Shear Yielding 508

8.4.3 Fracture in Semicrystalline and Crystalline Polymers 512

8.4.4 Toughness of Polymers 513

8.5 Fracture and Toughness of Biological Materials 517

8.6 Facture Mechanism Maps 521

Suggested Reading 521

Exercises 521

Chapter 9 Fracture Testing 525

9.1 Introduction 525

9.2 Impact Testing 525

9.2.1 Charpy Impact Test 526

9.2.2 Drop-Weight Test 529

9.2.3 Instrumented Charpy Impact Test 531

9.3 Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness Test 532

9.4 Crack Opening Displacement Testing 537

9.5 J-Integral Testing 538

9.6 Flexure Test 540

9.6.1 Three-Point Bend Test 541

9.6.2 Four-Point Bending 542

9.6.3 Interlaminar Shear Strength Test 543

9.7 Fracture Toughness Testing of Brittle Materials 545

9.7.1 Chevron Notch Test 547

9.7.2 Indentation Methods for Determining Toughness 549

9.8 Adhesion of Thin Films to Substrates 552

Suggested Reading 553

Exercises 553

Chapter 10 Solid Solution，Precipitation，and Dispersion Strengthening 558

10.1 Introduction 558

10.2 Solid-Solution Strengthening 559

10.2.1 Elastic Interaction 560

10.2.2 Other Interactions 564

10.3 Mechanical Effects Associated with Solid Solutions 564

10.3.1 Well-Defined Yield Point in the Stress-Strain Curves 565

10.3.2 Plateau in the Stress-Strain Curve and Luders Band 566

10.3.3 Strain Aging 567

10.3.4 Serrated Stress-Strain Curve 568

10.3.5 Snoek Effect 569

10.3.6 Blue Brittleness 570

10.4 Precipitation-and Dispersion-Hardening 571

10.5 Dislocation-Precipitate Interaction 579

10.6 Precipitation in Microalloyed Steels 585

10.7 Dual-Phase Steels 590

Suggested Reading 590

Exercises 591

Chapter 11 Martensitic Transformation 594

11.1 Introduction 594

11.2 Structures and Morphologies of Martensite 594

11.3 Strength of Martensite 600

11.4 Mechanical Effects 603

11.5 Shape-Memory Effect 608

11.5.1 Shape-Memory Effect in Polymers 614

11.6 Martensitic Transformation in Ceramics 614

Suggested Reading 618

Exercises 619

Chapter 12 Special Materials：Intermetallics and Foams 621

12.1 Introduction 621

12.2 Silicides 621

12.3 Ordered Intermetallics 622

12.3.1 Dislocation Structures in Ordered Intermetallics 624

12.3.2 Effect of Ordering on Mechanical Properties 628

12.3.3 Ductility of Intermetallics 634

12.4 Cellular Materials 639

12.4.1 Structure 639

12.4.2 Modeling of the Mechanical Response 639

12.4.3 Comparison of Predictions and Experimental Results 645

12.4.4 Syntactic Foam 645

12.4.5 Plastic Behavior of Porous Materials 646

Suggested Reading 650

Exercises 650

Chapter 13 Creep and Superplasticity 653

13.1 Introduction 653

13.2 Correlation and Extrapolation Methods 659

13.3 Fundamental Mechanisms Responsible for Creep 665

13.4 Diffusion Creep 666

13.5 Dislocation（or Power Law）Creep 670

13.6 Dislocation Glide 673

13.7 Grain-Boundary Sliding 675

13.8 Deformation-Mechanism（Weertman-Ashby）Maps 676

13.9 Creep-Induced Fracture 678

13.10 Heat-Resistant Materials 681

13.11 Creep in Polymers 688

13.12 Diffusion-Related Phenomena in Electronic Materials 695

13.13 Superplasticity 697

Suggested Reading 705

Exercises 705

Chapter 14 Fatigue 713

14.1 Introduction 713

14.2 Fatigue Parameters and S-N（Wohler）Curves 714

14.3 Fatigue Strength or Fatigue Life 716

14.4 Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life 719

14.5 Effect of Frequency 721

14.6 Cumulative Damage and Life Exhaustion 721

14.7 Mechanisms of Fatigue 725

14.7.1 Fatigue Crack Nucleation 725

14.7.2 Fatigue Crack Propagation 730

14.8 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Applied to Fatigue 735

14.8.1 Fatigue of Biomaterials 744

14.9 Hysteretic Heating in Fatigue 746

14.10 Environmental Effects in Fatigue 748

14.11 Fatigue Crack Closure 748

14.12 The Two-Parameter Approach 749

14.13 The Short-Crack Problem in Fatigue 750

14.14 Fatigue Testing 751

14.14.1 Conventional Fatigue Tests 751

14.14.2 Rotating Bending Machine 751

14.14.3 Statistical Analysis of S-N Curves 753

14.14.4 Nonconventional Fatigue Testing 753

14.14.5 Servohydraulic Machines 755

14.14.6 Low-Cycle Fatigue Tests 756

14.14.7 Fatigue Crack Propagation Testing 757

Suggested Reading 758

Exercises 759

Chapter 15 Composite Materials 765

15.1 Introduction 765

15.2 Types of Composites 765

15.3 Important Reinforcements and Matrix Materials 767

15.3.1 Microstructural Aspects and Importance of the Matrix 769

15.4 Interfaces in Composites 770

15.4.1 Crystallographic Nature of the Fiber-Matrix Interface 771

15.4.2 Interfacial Bonding in Composites 772

15.4.3 Interfacial Interactions 773

15.5 Properties of Composites 774

15.5.1 Density and Heat Capacity 775

15.5.2 Elastic Moduli 775

15.5.3 Strength 780

15.5.4 Anisotropic Nature of Fiber Reinforced Composites 783

15.5.5 Aging Response of Matrix in MMCs 785

15.5.6 Toughness 785

15.6 Load Transfer from Matrix to Fiber 788

15.6.1 Fiber and Matrix Elastic 789

15.6.2 Fiber Elastic and Matrix Plastic 792

15.7 Fracture in Composites 794

15.7.1 Single and Multiple Fracture 795

15.7.2 Failure Modes in Composites 796

15.8 Some Fundamental Characteristics of Composites 799

15.8.1 Heterogeneity 799

15.8.2 Anisotropy 799

15.8.3 Shear Coupling 801

15.8.4 Statistical Variation in Strength 802

15.9 Functionally Graded Materials 803

15.10 Applications 803

15.10.1 Aerospace Applications 803

15.10.2 Nonaerospace Applications 804

15.11 Laminated Composites 806

Suggested Reading 809

Exercises 810

Chapter 16 Environmental Effects 815

16.1 Introduction 815

16.2 Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion in Metals 815

16.2.1 Galvanic Corrosion 816

16.2.2 Uniform Corrosion 817

16.2.3 Crevice corrosion 817

16.2.4 Pitting Corrosion 818

16.2.5 Intergranular Corrosion 818

16.2.6 Selective leaching 819

16.2.7 Erosion-Corrosion 819

16.2.8 Radiation Damage 819

16.2.9 Stress Corrosion 819

16.3 Oxidation of metals 819

16.4 Environmentally Assisted Fracture in Metals 820

16.4.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking（SCC） 820

16.4.2 Hydrogen Damage in Metals 824

16.4.3 Liquid and Solid Metal Embrittlement 830

16.5 Environmental Effects in Polymers 831

16.5.1 Chemical or Solvent Attack 832

16.5.2 Swelling 832

16.5.3 Oxidation 833

16.5.4 Radiation Damage 834

16.5.5 Environmental Crazing 835

16.5.6 Alleviating the Environmental Damage in Polymers 836

16.6 Environmental Effects in Ceramics 836

16.6.1 Oxidation of Ceramics 839

Suggested Reading 840

Exercises 840

Appendixes 843

Index 851