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Introduction 1

1．Linguistics Is the Science of Language 1

2．The Scope of Linguistics 3

3．Approaches to the Study of Language 4

4．Grammar 5

5．Schools of Linguistics 7

Chapter One:Language 11

1．What Is Language? 12

1.1．Language is a special social phenomenon 12

1.2．Language is a well-organized system of linguistic symbols 12

1.3．The language system is unique to human beings 15

2．Social Functions of Language 17

2.1．Language,as a communicative means,serves society 17

2.2．Language is the most important communicative means 18

2.3．Language is the means for conceptual thinking 20

3．Language and the Human Brain 22

3.1．The structure of the human brain 22

3.2．Functions of the brain 23

4．The Conceptual Thinking of the Deaf-mute 25

5．The Origin of Language 26

6．Animal Communication Systems 28

Exe rcise 1 33

Chapter Two:Phonetics:The Sounds of Language 34

1．The Phonetic Alphabet 35

2．English Consonants and Vowels 40

3．The Study of Phonetics 45

4．Articulatory Phonetics 46

4.1．The articulatory organs 47

4.2．Articulation of English consonants 49

(1)Place of articulation 51

(2)Manner of articulation 53

4.3．Description of English vowels 65

5．Natural Classes of Speech Sounds 69

Exercise 2 70

Chapter Three:Phonology:The Sound Pattern of Language 75

1．Phonemes:The Phonological Units of Language 76

1.1．Distinctive features of phonemes 78

1.2．Nondistinctive features 83

2．Suprasegmental Phonemes 88

3．Sequences of Phonemes 94

3.1．Constraints on sequences of phonemes 95

3.2．Syllables 96

4．Phonological Rules 99

5．The Formalization of Phonological Rules 108

Exercise 3 113

Chapter Four:Morphology:The Structure of Words 119

1．Morphemes:The Smallest Meaningful Units of Language 121

1.1．What is a morpheme? 121

1.2．Morphemes,morphs,allomorphs 123

1.3．Analysis of morphemes 124

1.4．Derivational and inflectional morphemes 126

2．Morphological Rules of Word Formation 129

3．Other Ways to Form Words 133

3.1．Conversion 133

3.2．Abbreviation(or Shortening) 134

3.3．Back-formation 134

3.4．Blending 135

3.5．Onomatopoeia(or Imitation） 135

3.6．Reduplication(or Repetition） 136

3.7．Sentence-condensation 136

3.8．Acronymization 137

4．The Phonetic Representation of Morphemes 137

Exercise 4 141

Chapter Five:Syntax:The Structure of Sentences 145

1．Grammatical Rules 145

1.1．Paradigmatic rules 146

(1)Parts of speech 147

(2)Inflection 150

(3)Grammatical categories 151

1.2．Syntagmatic rules 163

(1)Combination of morphemes into words 163

(2)The basic patterns of combinations of words 164

(3)Constituent structure 167

2．Grammatical Units 173

3．The Sentence Patterns of Language 176

3.1．The syntactic rules 176

3.2．Phrase-structure rules 183

3.3．Fitting in morphemes and words 189

3.4．Recursive rules 192

3.5．Deep and surface structures 195

3.6．Transformational rules 198

3.7．The phonological and semantic components 209

3.8．Ambiguity in surface structure and grammatical relationship revealed in deep structure 210

Exercise 5 216

Chapter Six:Semantics:The Meaning of Language 219

1．Meaning,Concept,Referent 220

2．Sense and Reference 221

3．The Meaning of Morphemes and Words 222

4．Semantic Features and Componential Analysis 227

5．Monosemy and Polysemy 228

6．Homonymy 230

7．Sense Relations between Words 233

7.1．Synonymy 233

7.2．Antonymy 237

8．Idioms 241

9．Combination of Meanings of Words 245

10．The Meaning of Sentences 245

11．The Study of Pragmatics 250

11.1．Context 250

11.2．Speech acts 252

Exercise 6 253

Chapter Seven:Language Acquisition 257

1．Stages in Child Language Acquistion 258

1.1．The babbling stage 259

1.2．The holophrastic stage 260

1.3．The two-word stage 261

1.4．The telegraphic stage 262

1.5．The full language acquistion stage 264

2．Different Views on Child Language Acquistion 265

2.1．Postnatal learning 265

2.2．Innate linguistic competence 269

Exercise 7 271

Chapter Eight:Language Variation 273

1．Dialects 273

1.1．Geographical dialects 274

1.2．Social dialects 275

1.3．Styles 279

1.4．Slang,jargon and taboo 281

1.5．Standard and nonstandard dialects 284

2．Lingua Francas 285

3．Pidgin and Creole Languages 289

4．Esperanto:An Artificial Language 298

Exercise 8 301

Chapter Nine:Historical-Comparative Linguistics 303

1．Grimm's Law and Verner's Law:Sound Correspondence 304

2．Languages of the World 307

3．The Genetic Classification of Languages 309

4．Language Families 314

4.1．The Indo-European Family 316

4.2．The Sino-Tibetan Family 317

4.3．The Afro-Asiatic Family 319

4.4．The Caucasian Family 319

4.5．The Uralic Family 320

4.6．The Altaic Family 320

4.7．The Dravidian Family 321

4.8．The Malayo-Polynesian Family 321

4.9．The Niger-Kordofanian Family 321

5．Typological Classification of Languages 323

5.1．Isolating languages 324

5.2．Agglutinating languages 325

5.3．Inflectional languages 327

5.4．Polysynthetic languages 331

6．Structural Classification of Languages 332

Exercise 9 334

Chapter Ten:Language Change 338

1．A Brief History of English 338

2．Phonetic Changes 341

3．Phonological Changes 343

3.1．Changes in phonemes and phonological rules 344

3.2．The Great Vowel Shift 348

4．Morphological Changes 350

5．Syntactic Changes 353

6．Lexical Changes 356

6.1．Word Coinage 357

6.2．Borrowing 358

7．Semantic Changes 365

7.1．Broadening and Narrowing 365

7.2．Elevation and Degradation 367

8．Causes of Language change 368

Exercise 10 372

Chapter Eleven:Writing System 374

1．The Origin and Development of Writing 376

1.1．The origin of writing 376

1.2．The development of writing 378

2．Modern Types of Writing Systems 383

3．Reformation of Writing System 385

4．Writing and Speech 390

Exercise 11 397

Reference Books 399

Glossory 401