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Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics 1

1.1 What is language? 1

1.2 The design features of language 3

1.3 The origin of language 4

1.4 What is linguistics? 5

1.5 The scope of linguistics 7

1.6 A brief history of linguistics 9

1.6.1 Saussure as the father of modern linguistics 9

1.6.2 American structuralism 10

1.6.3 Generative linguistics 11

1.6.4 Functional linguistics 12

Questions and Exercises 13

Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology:The Sounds and Sound Patterns of Language 14

2.1 Introduction 14

2.2 Phonetics 14

2.2.1 Speech organs 15

2.2.2 Consonants 16

2.2.3 Vowels 18

2.2.4 Transcription of speech sounds 20

2.3 Phonology 21

2.3.1 Phoneme 21

2.3.2 Phone and allophone 22

2.3.3 Phonotactics 23

2.3.4 Prosodic features:stress,tone and intonation 25

2.3.5 Co-articulation effects 26

2.4 Summary 27

Questions and Exercises 28

Chapter 3 Morphology:The Word Structure of Language 29

3.1 Introduction 29

3.2 The words of language 29

3.3 The structure of words 30

3.4 Morpheme,morph and allomorph 31

3.5 Classification of morphemes 32

3.5.1 Free morphemes and bound morphemes 32

3.5.2 Roots and affixes 32

3.5.3 Inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes 32

3.6 Word formation processes 33

3.6.1 Derivation 34

3.6.2 Compounding 35

3.6.3 Conversion 37

3.6.4 Blending 37

3.6.5 Backformation 38

3.6.6 Abbreviation or shortening 38

3.7 Summary 39

Questions and Exercises 39

Chapter 4 Syntax:The Sentence Structure of Language 41

4.1 Introduction 41

4.2 Sentence structure 42

4.2.1 Definition of sentence 42

4.2.2 The linear structure of sentence 42

4.2.3 The hierarchical structure of sentence 43

4.3 The traditional approach 43

4.4 The structural approach 45

4.4.1 Immediate constituent analysis 45

4.4.2 Endocentric and exocentric constructions 46

4.5 The transformational-generative approach 47

4.5.1 The TG model of grammar 47

4.5.2 Syntactic structure 49

4.5.3 Movement 56

4.6 The functional approach 61

4.6.1 Functions of language 61

4.6.2 Functional analysis of syntactic structure 63

4.7 Summary 64

Questions and Exercises 65

Chapter 5 Semantics:The Meaning of Language 67

5.1 Introduction 67

5.2 Approaches to meaning 67

5.3 Sense and reference 69

5.4 Word meaning 70

5.4.1 Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning 70

5.4.2 Classification of lexical meaning 70

5.4.3 Sense relations 73

5.4.4 Semantic field 77

5.5 Sentence meaning 78

5.5.1 Definition of sentence meaning 78

5.5.2 Semantic relations at the sentential level 79

5.6 Ambiguity 80

5.7 Semantic analysis 81

5.7.1 Componential Analysis 81

5.7.2 Predication Analysis 83

Questions and Exercises 85

Chapter 6 Pragmatics:The Use of Language in Context 87

6.1 Introduction 87

6.2 Pragmatics as a new branch of linguistics 87

6.2.1 Defining pragmatics 87

6.2.2 Syntax,semantics and pragmatics 89

6.3 Speech Act Theory 91

6.3.1 Constatives and performatives 91

6.3.2 Locution,illocution,and perlocution 92

6.3.3 Felicity conditions 93

6.3.4 Classification of speech acts 94

6.4 Theory of conversational implicature 94

6.4.1 The notion of implicature 94

6.4.2 Cooperative Principle and its maxims 96

6.4.3 Flouting the maxims 97

6.5 Politeness Principle 98

6.5.1 Politeness:The principle and the maxims 98

6.5.2 Clashes between the maxims 99

6.6 Summary 99

Questions and Exercises 100

Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis:Language above the Sentence 102

7.1 Introduction 102

7.2 What is discourse analysis? 102

7.3 Cohesion 103

7.3.1 Reference 103

7.3.2 Substitution 105

7.3.3 Ellipsis 106

7.3.4 Conjunction 106

7.3.5 Lexical cohesion 107

7.4 Coherence 108

7.5 The structure of discourse 111

7.5.1 Thematic structure and information structure 111

7.5.2 The structure of conversations 115

7.5.3 Patterns in written discourse 117

7.6 Connections 118

Questions and Exercises 119

Chapter 8 Historical Linguistics:Language through Time 121

8.1 Introduction 121

8.2 When language changes 121

8.3 How language changes 123

8.3.1 Phonological change 123

8.3.2 Lexical change 124

8.3.3 Grammatical change 127

8.4 Why language changes 128

8.4.1 External causes 129

8.4.2 Internal causes 129

8.5 Summary 129

Questions and Exercises 130

Chapter 9 Stylistics:Language and Literature 131

9.1 Introduction 131

9.2 Important views on style 131

9.2.1 Style as deviation 132

9.2.2 Style as choice 132

9.2.3 Style as foregrounding 133

9.3 Stylistic analysis 133

9.3.1 Phonological analysis 133

9.3.2 Graphological analysis 136

9.3.3 Lexical analysis 137

9.3.4 Syntactic analysis 138

9.3.5 Semantic analysis 140

9.3.6 Pragmatic analysis 143

Questions and Exercises 148

Chapter 10 Sociolinguistics:Language and Society 151

10.1 Introduction 151

10.2 The relations between language and society 151

10.3 Speech community and speech variety 153

10.4 Dialect 155

10.4.1 Regional dialect 155

10.4.2 Social dialect 156

10.4.3 Standard dialect 159

10.5 Register 159

10.6 Language contact and contact languages 160

10.6.1 Lingua franca 160

10.6.2 Pidgin 161

10.6.3 Creole 161

10.7 Choosing a code 161

10.7.1 Diglossia 162

10.7.2 Bilingualism 162

10.7.3 Code-switching 162

Questions and Exercises 164

Chapter 11 Intercultural Communication:Language and Culture 165

11.1 Introduction 165

11.2 Definitions of culture 165

11.3 The relationship between language and culture 166

11.4 Naming the world through language 167

11.4.1 Color terms 167

11.4.2 Kinship terms 168

11.4.3 Culture-loaded words 169

11.5 Communicative patterns across cultures 170

11.5.1 Address forms 170

11.5.2 Greetings 171

11.5.3 Giving and accepting compliments 172

11.5.4 High context versus low context 173

11.6 Language and thought:Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 174

11.7 Intercultural communication 176

11.7.1 Intercultural communication as a field of research 176

11.7.2 Conquering obstacles in intercultural communication 176

11.7.3 Value dimensions 177

11.8 Summary 179

Questions and Exercises 179

Chapter 12 Psycholinguistics:Language and Psychology 181

12.1 Introduction 181

12.2 Language and the brain:The biological foundations of language 181

12.2.1 Cerebral lateralization and language functions 181

12.2.2 Evidence of lateralization 182

12.3 Language comprehension 182

12.3.1 Human information processing system 182

12.3.2 The mental lexicon 184

12.3.3 Sentence comprehension 186

12.3.4 Discourse comprehension 187

12.4 Language production 189

12.5 Language acquisition 191

12.5.1 First language,second language and foreign language 191

12.5.2 First language acquisition 192

12.5.3 Second language acquisition 194

Questions and Exercises 196

Chapter 13 Cognitive Linguistics:Language and Cognition 198

13.1 Introduction 198

13.2 Categories and categorization 198

13.3 Conceptual metaphors 200

13.4 Conceptual metonymies 202

13.5 Image schemas 203

13.6 Iconicity 205

13.6.1 Iconicity of order 205

13.6.2 Iconicity of distance 206

13.6.3 Iconicity of complexity 206

Questions and Exercises 207

Chapter 14 Applied Linguistics:Language Teaching and Learning 208

14.1 Introduction 208

14.2 How is language learned? 208

14.2.1 Behaviorism 208

14.2.2 The innateness hypothesis:universal grammar 209

14.2.3 Interlanguage theory 210

14.2.4 The input hypothesis 211

14.2.5 The output hypothesis 211

14.3 Individual differences in language learning 212

14.3.1 Language aptitude 212

14.3.2 Learning style 212

14.3.3 Motivation 213

14.3.4 Anxiety 214

14.3.5 Learning strategies 214

14.4 Approaches and methods in foreign language teaching 215

14.4.1 The Grammar-Translation Method 215

14.4.2 The Direct Method 216

14.4.3 The Audiolingual Method 217

14.4.4 The Communicative Approach 217

14.4.5 The Task-based Approach 219

14.5 Language Testing 219

14.5.1 Types of test 220

14.5.2 Qualities of a good test 221

Questions and Exercises 222

References 223

Glossary 230