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Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1

1.1 Why Study Language? 1

1.2 What Is Language? 2

1.3 Design Features of Language 3

1.3.1 Arbitrariness 4

1.3.2 Duality 5

1.3.3 Creativity 7

1.3.4 Displacement 7

1.4 Origin of Language 8

1.5 Functions of Language 9

1.5.1 Informative 10

1.5.2 Interpersonal Function 11

1.5.3 Performative 11

1.5.4 Emotive Function 12

1.5.5 Phatic Communion 12

1.5.6 Recreational Function 13

1.5.7 Metalingual Function 14

1.6 What Is Linguistics? 14

1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics 15

1.7.1 Phonetics 15

1.7.2 Phonology 16

1.7.3 Morphology 16

1.7.4 Syntax 17

1.7.5 Semantics 17

1.7.6 Pragmatics 18

1.8 Macrolinguistics 18

1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 18

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 19

1.8.3 Anthropological Linguistics 19

1.8.4 Computational Linguistics 19

1.9 Important Distinctions in Linguistics 20

1.9.1 Descriptive vs.Prescriptive 20

1.9.2 Synchronic vs.Diachronic 21

1.9.3 Langue ＆ Parole 21

1.9.4 Competence and Performance 22

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 24

2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made? 25

2.1.1 Speech Organs 25

2.1.2 The IPA 27

2.2 Consonants and Vowels 29

2.2.1 Consonants 29

2.2.2 Vowels 32

2.2.3 The Sounds of English 34

2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology 36

2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions 36

2.3.2 Phonemes 38

2.3.3 Allophones 40

2.4 Phonological Processes,Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features 41

2.4.1 Assimilation 41

2.4.2 Epenthesis,Rule Ordering and the Elsewhere Condition 43

2.4.3 Distinctive Features 45

2.5 Suprasegmentals 47

2.5.1 The Syllable Structure 47

2.5.2 Stress 49

2.5.3 Intonation 50

2.5.4 Tone 50

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 52

3.1 What Is Morpheme? 52

3.1.1 Morpheme and Morpholopy 52

3.1.2 Types of Morphemes 53

3.1.3 Morphological change and Allomorph 55

3.2 What is word? 57

3.2.1 Word and Lexical Items 57

3.2.2 Classification of words 59

3.3 Word Formation(1):From Morpheme to Word 61

3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation 61

3.3.2 The Derivational Way of Formation 62

3.4 Word Formation(2):Lexical Change 65

3.5 Word Group and Phrase 70

Chapter 4 From Word to Text 73

4.1 Syntactic Relations 73

4.1.1 Positional Relation 73

4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability 74

4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 75

4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents 75

4.2.1 Grammatical Construction 75

4.2.2 Immediate Constituents 76

4.2.3 Endocentrie and Exocentric Constructions 78

4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination 79

4.3 Syntactic Function 81

4.3.1 Subject 81

4.3.2 Predicate 83

4.3.3 Object 84

4.3.4 The Relation between Classes and Functions 84

4.4 Category 85

4.4.1 Number 85

4.4.2 Gender 86

4.4.3 Case 86

4.4.4 Agreement 87

4.5 Phrase,Clause and Sentence 88

4.5.1 Phrase 88

4.5.2 Clause 88

4.5.3 Sentence 89

4.6 Recursiveness 90

4.6.1 Conjoining 91

4.6.2 Embedding 91

4.7 Beyond the Sentence 91

4.7.1 Sentential Connection 92

4.7.2 Cohesion 92

Chapter 5 Meaning 93

5.1 Meanings of"MEANING" 93

5.2 The Referential Theory 95

5.3 Sense Relations 97

5.3.1 Synonymy 97

5.3.2 Antonymy 98

5.3.3 Hyponymy 101

5.4 Componential Analysis 102

5.5 Sentence Meaning 105

5.5.1 An Integrated Theory 106

5.5.2 Logical Semantics 108

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition 115

6.1 What Is Cognition? 115

6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics? 117

6.2.1 Language Acquisition 118

6.2.2 Language Comprehension 121

6.2.3 Language Production 126

6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics? 129

6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations 130

6.3.2 Categorization 132

6.3.3 Image Schemas 134

6.3.4 Metaphor 135

6.3.5 Metonymy 138

6.3.6 Blending Theory 142

Chapter 7 Language,Culture,and Society 146

7.1 Language and Culture 146

7.1.1 How Does Language Relate to Culture? 147

7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 150

7.1.3 Case Studies 154

7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study? 155

7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom 156

7.2 Language and Society 157

7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society? 157

7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective 157

7.2.3 What Should We Know More about Sociolinguistics? 160

7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get from Sociolinguistics? 161

7.3 Cross-cultural Communication 162

7.3.1 What Should We Know All about Cross-cultural Communication? 163

7.3.2 Case Studies 163

7.4 Summary 169

Chapter 8 Language in Use 171

8.1 Speech Act Theory 172

8.1.1 Performatives and Constatives 172

8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 174

8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature 176

8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle 176

8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims 178

8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 181

8.3 Post-Gricean Developments 184

8.3.1 Relevance Theory 184

8.3.2 The Q-and R-principles 187

8.3.3 The Q-,I-and M-principles 192

Chapter 9 Language and Literature 196

9.1 Introduction 196

9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language 196

9.2.1 Foregrounding and the Grammatical Form 197

9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 198

9.2.3 The Analysis of Literary Language 200

9.3 The Language in Poetry 201

9.3.1 Sound Patterning 201

9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning 202

9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning 203

9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound 205

9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre 206

9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry? 206

9.4 The Language in Fiction 208

9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View 208

9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation 210

9.4.3 Prose Style 214

9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction? 215

9.5 The Language in Drama 215

9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama? 216

9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language 217

9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts? 221

9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature 221

9.6.1 Theoretical Background 221

9.6.2 An Example of Cognitive Analysis 222

Chapter 10 Language and Computer 226

10.0 Introduction 226

10.1 Computer-assisted Language Learning(CALL) 226

10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs.CALL 226

10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development 228

10.1.3 Technology 229

10.2 Machine Translation 230

10.2.1 History of Development 231

10.2.2 Research Methods 233

10.2.3 MT Quality 234

10.2.4 MT and the Internet 235

10.2.5 Speech Translation 236

10.2.6 MT and Human Translation 236

10.3 Corpus Linguistics 237

10.3.1 Definition 238

10.3.2 Criticisms and the Revival of Corpus Linguistics 238

10.3.3 Concordance 239

10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation 240

10.3.5 The Roles of Corpus Data 241

10.4 Computer Mediated Communication 243

10.4.1 Mail and News 244

10.4.2 PowerPoint 245

10.4.3 Blog 246

10.4.4 Chatroom 247

10.4.5 Emoticons or Smileys 248

Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 249

11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 249

11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning 250

11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning 251

11.2.2 Input and Language Learning 253

11.2.3 Interlanguage in Language Learning 254

11.3 Linguistics and Language Teaching 255

11.3.1 The Discourse-based View of Language Teaching 255

11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 257

11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design 258

11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms:Syllabus and Curriculum 259

11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design 260

11.4.3 Types of Syllabus 261

11.4.4 Components of Syllabus 268

11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design 269

11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis 270

11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis(CA) 270

11.5.2 Error Analysis(EA) 271

11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching 273

11.6.1 Types of Corpora 273

11.6.2 What Uses Can We Make of Corpora? 274

11.7 Summary 275

Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 276

12.0 Introduction 276

12.1 The Prague School 278

12.1.1 Introduction 278

12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions 278

12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP) 280

12.2 The London School 283

12.2.1 Malinowski's Theories 283

12.2.2 Firth's Theories 284

12.2.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 287

12.3 American Structuralism 298

12.3.1 Early Period:Boas and Sapir 299

12.3.2 Bloomfield's Theory 301

12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics 303

12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar 307

12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis 308

12.4.2 What Is a Generative Grammar? 309

12.4.3 The Classical Theory 310

12.4.4 The Standard Theory 313

12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory 316

12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory 318

12.4.7 The Minimalist Program and After 318

12.4.8 Chomsky's Fundamental Contribution 321

12.5 Revisionists or Rebels? 321

12.5.1 Case Grammar 321

12.5.2 Generative Semantics 323

Bibliography 325

Glossary and Index 340